LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 


Class 


OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 

OF 


JOSEPH  E.  WING. 


Alfalfa  Farming 
In  America 


By  JOSEPH  E.  WING 

Staff  Correspondent  of  The  Breeder's  Gazette 


CHICAGO,  ILL.: 

Sanders  Publishing  Company 

1909 


Copyrighted,  1909, 

BY  SANDERS  PUBLISHING  CO. 

All  rights  reserved. 


CONTENTS. 


INTRODUCTION    3_  45 

HISTORY 46_  77 

VARIETIES  OF  ALFALFA 78-  83 

HABIT  OF  GROWTH 84-  96 

SEED  BEARING  HABIT,  THE 97-100 

GETTING  A  STAND  OF  ALFALFA 101-106 

CARBONATE  OF  LIME 107-149 

MANURES  AND  HUMUS  IN  SOIL 150-175 

PHOSPHORUS  FOR  SOILS  176-188 

POTASH  AS  A  FERTILIZER  189-190 

PLOWING  THE  SOIL  191-198 

SEEDING  AND  CUTTING 199-222 

INOCULATION  AND  NITROGEN  223-236 

ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION 237-248 

YIELD  OF  ALFALFA 249-253 

DISKING  AND  CULTIVATING 254-257 

WEEDS  AND  GRASSES 258-265 

ALFALFA  DISEASES 266-267 

SEEDING  GRASSES 268-276 

GROWING  BY  IRRIGATION  — 277-292 

TIME  OF  CUTTING 293-298 

HARVESTING  HAY  IN  THE  WEST 299-301 

HAYING  TOOLS  302-308 

HAY-MAKING  IN  RAINY  COUNTRIES  309-322 

SOILING  AND  PASTURE 323-335 

As  A  PASTURE  PLANT 336-347 

ALFALFA  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA 348-353 

ALFALFA  FOR  THE  SILO 354-355 

BALING  ALFALFA  HAY  356-357 

SEEDING  VALUE  OF  HAY 358-862 

CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION  363-372 

ALFALFA  FOR  HORSES  373-379 

ALFALFA  FOB  CATTLE  FEEDING .380-385 

ALFALFA  FOR  DAIRY  Cows 386-391 

ALFALFA  FOR  SHEEP 392-395 

HAY  FOR  SHEEP  FEEDING  396-401 

ALFALFA  FOR  SWINE 402-414 

ALFALFA  FOR  POULTRY  415-416 

MAKING  ALFALFA  MEAL  417-418 

PLOWING  ALFALFA  SOD  419-423 

ANIMAL  PESTS  AND  DISEASES 424-429 

GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED 430-405 

BARNS  AND  SHEDS  FOR  STORING  HAY 466-469 

ALFALFA  IN  TEXAS 470-472 

ALFALFA  IN  HAWAII 473 

ALFALFA  IN  ALGERIA 474 

VITALITY  OF  SEED'  . .  475 


195110 


INTRODUCTION. 

In  March,  1886,  the  writer,  a  tall  awkward  young 
man  fresh  from  the  fields  of  Ohio,  was  traveling  by 
rail  through  Utah.  Near  Provo  he  began  to  see 
snug  farms  with  trees,  meadows,  orchards,  granaries 
and  haystacks.  Some  of  these  stacks  had  been  cut 
in  two  with  the  hay  knife,  and  he  noticed  with  won- 
der the  beautiful  green  color  of  the  fresh  cut  sur- 
face. Calling  the  attention  of  the  conductor  to  this 
phenomenon,  so  strange  to  him,  he  'asked,  "What 
sort  of  hay  is  in  those  stacks ! "  ' i  Lucern, ' '  prompt- 
ly replied  the  conductor.  "And  what  makes  it  so 
green  ? ' '  "  It  7s  green  because  that 's  the  color  of  it, ' ' 
sagely  replied  the  smiling  conductor,  as  he  pocketed 
a  cash  fare  and  moved  on  about  his  business.  At 
that  date  lucern,  or  alfalfa,  had  not  spread  much 
east  of  the  valleys  of  Utah;  some  was  grown  in  Col- 
orado, but  it  was  a  new  thing  there.  The  Utah 
farmers  were  many  of  them  English  and  Danish, 
hence  their  choice  of  the  old  name  lucern,  while  the 
Spanish  term  alfalfa  had  come  in  from  Chili  by  way 
of  California. 

Late  that  night  the  writer  reached  Salt  Lake  City 
and  early  next  morning  he  was  up  ready  to  explore. 
In  his  rambles  about  the  quaint  old  city  (more  old- 
world  than  American  at  that  time  with  its  houses 
of  adobe,  its  walled  gardens  and  orchards,  its  rows 
of  towering  Lombardy  poplars)  he  came  across  a 


(3) 


4  AFLALFA    FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

square  devoted  to  the  hay  market.  There  stood 
awaiting  purchasers  dozens  of  loads  of  this  curious 
green-looking  hay.  He  went  to  a  load  of  it  and  drew 
out  a  stem  and  chewed  it  to  see  what  it  tasted  like. 
To  his  astonishment  it  tasted  good,  much  as  wheat 
tastes  when  chewed.  It  dissolved  in  his  mouth  and 
tasted  as  though  it  would  nourish  him.  "The  best 
country  I  have  struck  yet,"  remarked  the  "boy  to 
himself.  "If  ever  I  get  hard  up  here  I  can  at  least 
go  to  a  haystack  and  eat  lucern  hay.  I  won't 
starve. "  Curiously  enough  it  later  came  to  his 
knowledge  that  this  first  impression  was  true,  that 
alfalfa  hay  has  really  in  it  nearly  the  same  amount 
of  nutrition,  pound  for  pound,  as  has  oats,  and  from 
oatmeal  have  come  mighty  good  men. 

Next  the  boy  lived  for  a  time  in  Salt  Lake  City 
and  cared  for  his  uncle's  cow.  She  was  a  fine 
motherly  cow,  very  wide  where  width  did  the  most 
good,  low  down  and  gentle,  with  a  big  mouth 
and  an  appetite  to  match  it.  He  fed  her  on  alfalfa 
hay  without  grain.  What  milk  she  gave !  That  cow 
must  have  been  a  freak,  for  she  gave  some  5  or  6 
gallons  a  day  of  rich  creamy  milk  with  no  other 
food  than  alfalfa  hay  and  hydrant  water.  Steadily 
as  he  milked  the  cow  the  respect  of  the  boy  for 
alfalfa  hay  grew. 

Next  the  boy  went  down  into  the  deep  mountain 
canyons  along  Green  Eiver  and  worked  there  on  a 
cattle  ranch.  It  was  a  great  ranch  in  dimension, 
full  40  miles  in  extreme  length,  extending  from  the 
horrid  cliffs  along  Price  Eiver  to  the  cool  heights 


INTRODUCTION.  5 

of  the  Big  Mesa,  sloping  down  to  the  Nine  Mile. 
Through  this  ranch  ran  a  little  creek  called  Range 
Creek.  The  soil  was  sandy  and  gravelly  along  the 
creek,  not  very  fertile.  The  climate  was  intensely 
hot;  often  the  thermometer  would  climb  to  110°  and 
S'tay  there  day  after  day.  Cattle  and  horses  were 
kept  on  the  ranch,  some  2,000  cattle  at  times.  In 
the  narrow  sandy  valley  little  ditches  were  made  to 
lead  the  water  from  the  bubbling  creek,  idle  fox  ages 
though  once  Cliff  Dwellers  had  farmed  along  its 
banks  and  grown  corn,  which  they  had  stored  in 
adobe  'and  stone  treasure  houses  high  up  under  the 
cliffs.  Now  little  fields  were  cleared  from  their  en- 
cumbering sagebrush  and  grease  wood,  the  water 
turned  on,  and  they  were  planted  to  corn  and  al- 
falfa. It  was  called  lucern  then;  later  the  name 
alfalfa  overpowered  and  became  almost  universal. 
At  first  the  alfalfa  did  not  thrive  along  Eange 
Creek.  It  made  a  small  feeble  growth,  but  it  stuck. 
In  one  field  especially,  down  close  to  the  headquar- 
ters cabin,  alfalfa  grew  the  first  year  no  more  than 
about  6  inches  high.  The  boy,  who  already  had 
charge  of  the  farm  and  general  charge  of  all  the 
ranch,  was  disgusted  with  it  and  wished  to  plow  it 
up  and  try  something  else.  The  soil  there  was 
sandy,  gravelly,  open  and  rather  coarse.  An  old- 
timer  happening  in  at  the  right  time  counseled 
against  plowing  it.  "Let  it  be;  you  may  have  good 
alfalfa  there  another  year, ' '  he  said.  This  advice  was 
heeded ;  the  next  year  the  alfalfa  there  grew  so  high 
that  when  the  burros  would  walk  out  into  it  only 


6  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

their  heads  would  be  visible.  It  produced  four  crops 
of  hay  and  easily  8  tons  to  the  acre.  Water  for 
irrigation  was  very  abundant  at  that  time  in  Eange 
Valley.  It  was  the  custom  to  flood  the  land  over  just 
before  cutting  off  the  hay  and  once  afterward. 

At  that  time  no  one  knew  anything  about  soil  inoc- 
ulation and  the  behavior  of  alfalfa  was  a  profound 
mystery.  It  now  occurs  to  the  writer  to  explain  the 
curious  behavior  of  the  alfalfa  in  this  manner:  up 
the  canyon  a  mile  or  two  was  an  established  alfalfa 
field,  not  a  good  stand,  but  thrifty.  When  this  field 
was  irrigated  the  surplus  water  flowed  on  down  to 
the  lower  field  and  went  over  that.  It  seems  clear 
now  that  in  this  manner  the  bacteria  were  intro- 
duced from  the  established  field  to  the  new  one.  As 
long  as  the  writer  had  connection  with  this  ranch, 
some  twelve  years,  this  field  continued  to  produce 
heavy  crops  of  alfalfa,  though  not  so  wonderfully 
rank  as  the  earlier  growths.  Doubtless  the  excessive 
irrigation  leached  away  .some  fertility,  and  the  con- 
tinual removal  of  hay  without  returning  any  manure 
or  fertilizer  told,  even  on  that  very  deep  and  per- 
vious soil.  However,  the  last  crops  that  the  writer 
remembers  growing  on  this  field  could  hardly  have 
been  less  than  5  tons  to  the  acre. 

It  used  to  be  a  great  joy  to  grow  alfalfa  on  this 
old  ranch.  Before  the  alfalfa  came  there  was  noth- 
ing in  the  valley  to  relieve  the  monotony  of  brown, 
drouth-stricken  nature.  The  alfalfa  fields  were 
vividly  green  squares  and  patches,  relieving  the 
monotony  of  brown  sage  brush  and  bare  earth.  The 


INTRODUCTION.  7 

advent  of  the  alfalfa  changed  the  animal  life  too  of 
the  canyon.  Before  alfalfa  came  there  used  to  be  little 
animal  life  save  the  chipmunks  and  lizards ;  all  had 
fled  that  could  flee  to  the  green  mountain  tops. 
After  alfalfa  deer  came  to  stay  down  in  the  meadows 
all  summer  long ;  some  of  them  had  their  little  fawns 
down  there.  The  boy  foreman  used  to  see  the  old 
does  standing  deep  in  alfalfa  nibbling  daintily  very 
early  in  the  morning  as  he  went  up  to  change  the 
water.  He  would  not  shoot  them;  they  were  his 
companions.  Humming  birds  too  came  in  great  num- 
bers to  sip  the  sweet  nectar  of  alfalfa  bloom.  They 
would  sit  in  quaint  rows  along  the  wire  fence,  peer- 
ing curiously  at  the  boy  as  he  passed  by  smiling, 
shovel  on  his  shoulder.  Bees  he  had  none,  else  there 
would  have  been  great  stores  of  honey  made  there. 
It  was  joy  to  grow  the  alfalfa,  because  the  grow- 
ing of  it  was  so  very  easy.  The  method  of  sowing 
was  very  simple.  The  fields  were  first  made  fairly 
level.  There  was  a  strong  slope  so  that  it  was  easy 
to  get  water  to  any  part  of  them.  Then  furrows 
were  made  with  a  common  turning  plow  run  shallow, 
or  else  with  a  furrow  marker  that  made  a  number 
of  shallower  furrows  parallel  with  each  other.  Then 
the  alfalfa  seed  was  sown,  sometimes  brushed  in 
with  a  brush  drag,  and  then  a  tiny  stream  of  water 
turned  in  each  furrow  and  kept  running  there  for 
days  and  days,  since  under  that  burning  sun  one 
could  not.  count  on  sandy  land  holding  moisture  at 
the  surface  very  long.  Sometimes  the  alfalfa  was 
sown  in  March,  oftener  in  April.  It  did  not  make 


8  ALFALFA    FARMING  IN    AMERICA. 

much  hay  the  first  season,  hardly  any  in  fact;  the 
second  year  was  when  it  began  to  hump  itself.  By 
the  second  year  all  furrows  were  pretty  well  leveled 
down  or  washed  away;  then  the  land  was  irrigated 
by  flooding.  Large  ditches  were  placed  across  the 
heads  of  the  fields,  with  lesser  ones  transversely 
lower  down.  The  head  ditches  were  provided  with 
dams  hastily  thrown  up  across  them  from  the  sand 
of  the  ditch  bottom.  Then  as  big  a  head  as  could 
be  mustered  was  turned  in  and  all  of  it  turned  out 
in  one  place.  The  irrigator  got  out  with  his  shovel, 
often  in  bare  feet,  and  helped  it  flow  this  way  and 
that,  spreading  it  so  that  it  covered  that  part  of  the 
field  with  an  even-flowing  sheet  of  water  a  few  inches 
deep.  When  it  had  flowed  a  few  hours  the  dam  was 
broken,  'the  stream  carried  further  along  to  another 
turnout.  By  this  simple  plan  of  irrigation  the  writer 
unaided  one  summer  watered  about  90  acres  of  land. 
That  was  a  happy  summer.  He  had  a  big  white 
burro,  "Old  Nig,"  which  he  kept  saddled  most  of 
the  time.  Nig  knew  the  work  about  as  well  as  the 
boy  knew  it,  and  he  would  gallop  merrily  up  the 
road  to  the  top  of  the  field  in  the  morning,  about 
two  miles  from  the  cabin,  stand  patiently  under  a 
cottonwood  tree  till  the  work  was  done  there;  then 
with  his  master  on  deck  gallop  cheerily  down  to  the 
next  field,  and  so  'on  till  all  the  water  had  been  given 
attention.  There  is  a  great  fascination  in  working 
with  water  and  the  writer  yet  thinks  irrigation 
farming  one  of  the  finest  schemes  in  the  world. 
The  making  of  'the  hay  was  hard  work,  but  not 


INTRODUCTION.  9 

accompanied  with  worry,  because  usually  no  rain 
fell  between  April  and  September.  We  used  to  mow 
down  the  alfalfa  and  rake  it  while  quite  green  and 
as  soon  as  possible  pile  it  up  in  big  cocks  and  leave 
it  there  to  dry  out  a  while.  In  that  hot  sun  and 
baking  air  the  moisture  disappeared  very  rapidly 
indeed,  so  that  by  the  time  we  could  get  to  hauling, 
the  hay  would  be  dry  enough,  and  thus  it  retained 
perfectly  its  color,  leaves  and  delicious  aroma.  Very 
joyous  times  we  had  at  this  haying,  a  lot  of  harum- 
scarum  cowboys  and  ranch  hands,  strong  as  wild 
colts  and  rejoicing  to  see  which  of  us  could  lift  the 
largest  forkful  of  hay. 

At  first  we  simply  hauled  the  hay  on  wagons  and 
stacked  it  by  hand.  Later  an  ingenious  Mormon 
boy  showed  us  how  to  rig  a  pole  stacker,  and  then 
we  let  the  horse  do  the  pitching.  We  accumulated 
great  ricks  of  hay,  hundreds  of  tons,  against  pos- 
sible severe  winters. 

Meanwhile  we  were  feeding  alfalfa  to  our  saddle 
and  work  horses,  to  poor  cows  and  calves  that  would 
have  died  before  green  grass  came  had  they  not  had 
this  Kelp,  and  occasionally  fattening  a  bunch  of  beef 
steers  on  it  for  the  spring  market,  when  fat  beef 
brings  a  premium  in  Denver  and  Salt  Lake  City. 
We  had  no  grain  at  all  and  fed  only  alfalfa  hay, 
making  with  it  very  good  beef  indeed,  though  doubt- 
less we  would  have  made  much  fatter  cattle  had  we 
had  corn  to  feed  along  with  it. 

We  had  a  few  old  sows  on  the  ranch  and  must 
make  provision  for  feeding  them  and  their  pigs. 


10  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

They  were  astonishingly  prolific  sows  and  gave  us 
great  litters  of  healthy  pigs,  so  many  sometimes 
that  we  did  no-t  know  what  to  do  with  them.  The 
sows  were  kept  penned  up  nearly  the  year  through 
and  during  summer  we  simply  cut  alfalfa  with  a 
scythe  and  threw  it  over  'to  them.  This  kept  them 
in  fine  thrifty  condition  and  their  pigs  grew  but  kept 
rather  lanky  on  the  diet.  When  fall  came  we  would 
fatten  them  off  with  pumpkins  and  squashes  and 
alfalfa.  In  winter  time  we  would  vary  the  diet  by 
giving  them  dry  alfalfa  hay  and  alfalfa  leaves. 
They  throve  well  and  it  was  at  first  very  amusing 
to  see  hogs  eat  alfalfa  hay,  putting  their  feet  on  it 
to  hold  it  down  while  they  tore  it  apart  with  their 
teeth  and  chewed  it  as  best  they  could.  It  was  won- 
derful to  us  also  to  see  what  fine  full  udders  our 
milk  cows  had.  Old-fashioned  milking  Shorthorns 
they  were,  of  the  type  that  the  fathers  had.  The 
Mormon  settlers  had  brought  with  them  their  best 
family  cows  when  they  came  across  the  range,  and 
we  had  some  of  their  descendants.  We  fed  these 
cows  only  alfalfa  hay  in  winter,  and  mostly  soiled 
them  on  green  alfalfa  in  summer,  and  what  splendid 
foaming  pails  we  carried  down  from  the  corral !  We 
half  lived  on  milk  and  cream  those  days,  being  too 
busy  to  make  butter.  Sometimes  we  had  trouble 
from  alfalfa  bloat.  That  came  in  the  fall,  after  we 
had  turned  -the  cows  on  the  meadows  and  they 
grazed  the  alfalfa  that  had  come  up  since  the  last 
mowing  and  gotten  badly  frosted.  We  used  to  have 
strenuous  times  with  these  old  cows,  tying  sticks  in 


INTRODUCTION.  11 

their  mouths  like  bridle  bits,  making  them  stand 
with  their  heads  up  a  steep  bank  and  putting  cakes 
of  ice  on  their  distended  sides.  We  never  had  one 
die,  but  learned  then  that  frosted  alfalfa  is  never 
a  safe  feed  for  a  cow. 

Over  on  the  Castle  Valley  desert  were  Mormon 
settlements,  Castle  Dale,  Ferron,  Price  and  other 
villages.  They  were  on  adobe  soil  mostly,  a  sad 
sort  of  alkaline  clay,  full  enough  of  minerals  but 
lacking  in  humus  and  life-giving  properties.  The 
first  attempts  of  these  settlers  to  grow  grain  were 
mostly  unsuccessful;  it  would  not  -thrive,  and  the 
people  were  incredibly  poor.  Little  by  little  they 
got  alfalfa  to  growing  on  this  alkaline  soil  and  then 
with  cows  and  pigs  and  poultry  they  managed  to 
live  quite  well.  t  Finally  one  of  them  let  the  water 
run  over  his  alfalfa  in  the  winter  so  that  it  froze 
into  solid  ice  over  his  field.  This  is  sure  death  to 
alfalfa,  unless  there  is  air  under  the  ice,  and  in  the 
spring  he  had  lost  his  meadow;  nearly  every  plant 
of  alfalfa  was  dead.  He  grieved  over  this,  but  set 
to  work  to  see  what  he  could  get  from  the  land  and 
planted  a  part  of  it  to  spring  wheat,  though  it  had 
previously  refused  to  grow  wheat,  and  a  part  to 
potatoes,  also  a  very  uncertain  crop  at  that  time  in 
Castle  Valley.  The  result  was  a  crop  of  wheat  that 
made  60  bushels  to  the  acre,  a  marvel  to  the  whole 
valley.  The  potatoes  made  some  unheard  of  yield, 
about  900  bushels  to  the  acre,  I  think,  and  the  for- 
tunes of  Castle  Valley  with  its  sun  and  brilliant  skies 
and  wildly  desolate  plains  and  crags  was  assured. 


12  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

These  valleys  were  fertile,  they  would  yield  food  for 
man  and  beast,  and  alfalfa  was  the  magic  sesame 
that  made  open  the  door  to  the  riches  of  the  valley. 

All  this  time  the  writer  was  becoming  more  and 
more  enthusiastic  over  the  wonderful  value  of  the 
alfalfa  plant.  Back  in  Ohio  was  the  old  home  farm 
where  he  had  spent  his  boyhood.  It  was  a  little 
farm  of  less  than  200  acres,  charmingly  diversified 
by  little  hills,  rich  flat  meadow  lands,  wet  and  half 
wild,  in  which  grew  wild  lilies  and  pink  fragrant 
spireas.  There  was  woodland  and  pasture,  a  run- 
ning stream,  the  Darby  creek,  with  swimming  holes 
in  it,  a  big  pond  where  he  had  sailed  his  tiny  ships 
not  so  very  many  years  before,  a  corn  field,  usually 
of  about  15  acres,  meadows  in  irregular  patches, 
and  an.  old  apple  orchard  that  bore  famously  iof  big 
red  apples.  On  that  farm  too  was  an  old  man  once 
tall  but  now  bent  and  gray,  weatherbeaten,  seamed 
and  furrowed  from  exposure,  with  a  kindly  serious 
face  and  a  twinkling  blue  eye.  That  was  the  father. 
And  a  mother,  small  and  agile  and  energetic,  rather 
frail  yet  sunny  and  happy,  ever  singing  at  her  work. 
That  was  mother.  And  two  younger  brothers  did 
the  work  about  the  barns  and  went  to  school.  These 
younger  brothers,  men  now,  are  yet  on  Woodland 
Farm  and  are  the  writer's  partners. 

The  writer  had  been  a  very  close  friend  of  his 
father,  and  together  they  had  planned  the  work  on 
Woodland  Farm  before  he  had  gone  west,  and  now 
the  old  man  remembered  his  boy  and  knew  of  his 
interest  in  the  old  place,  so  he  used  to  write  now 


INTRODUCTION.  13 

and  then  long  and  careful  letters  telling  of  what  he 
was  doing,  of  the  drains  that  he  was  laying,  or  the 
good  corn  that  he  grew.  And  the  boy  in  his  very 
first  enthusiasm  for  the  alfalfa  plant  sent  home  a 
package  of  seed  by  mail  (that  was  in  1886)  and 
asked  the  father  to  give  it  space  and  soil  and  care. 
And  often  in  his  daydreams  he  would  ponder  the 
question  of  returning  some  day  to  the  old  farm.  He 
would  dream  idle  dreams  of  what  he  might  do  there, 
how  he  might  enrich  it  and  plant  it  and  maybe  buy 
neighboring  acres  to  add  to  it. 

Somewhat  more  than  two  years  rolled  away  and 
the  boy  took  a  vacation  and  went  back  to  the  old 
home,  to  see  the  home  folks,  and  a  sweetheart  he 
had  there.  It  is  a  very  joyful  and  rather  a  wonder- 
ful thing  to  come  home  after  having  been  exiled  to 
a  strange  land.  The  deserts  of  Utah  were  like  an- 
other world,  so  that  when  the  boy  came  to  Ohio  it 
was  as  though  he  had  come  to  a  dream  world,  so 
beautiful,  and  so  natural  and  so  lovely  it  all  seemed. 
How  eagerly  he  explored  his  old  haunts,  one  by  one ! 
What  old  memories  were  stirred  into  life  as  he  saw 
the  meadows,  the  woodland,  the  hill  planted  to  corn 
and  kept  immaculately  clean  of  weeds,  the  orchard, 
the  garden;  the  dear  old  father,  stooped  and  aged 
more  than  the  boy  remembered  him,  went  right  to 
his  heart ;  the  mother,  silvery  haired  now ;  the  sister 
and  young  brothers !  The  sweetheart  was  of  course 
unspeakably  marvelous  and  wonderful,  and  it  all 
was  as  though  the  boy  had  been  born  again  into  a 
new  world.  Soon  after  his  arrival,  as  he  explored 


14  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

with  diligence,  lie  asked  the  old  man:  "Father, 
where  is  my  alfalfa!  Did  you  plant  that  seed  that 
I  sent  you?"  "Why,  yes,  I  planted  it,  but  it  did  not 
amount  to  anything.  This  is  no  country  for  alfalfa. 
It  may  do  for  you  in  the  West,  but  it  is  of  no  use 
here ;  but  come  and  see  it,  what  there  is  of  it."  Back 
of  the  garden  the  old  man  had  spaded  a  square  rod 
of  good  clay  soil  and  sowed  his  seed.  He  led  the 
way  and  pointed  accusingly  to  the  stunted  little 
plants  scattered  thinly  over  the  ground:  " There, 
don't  you  see  that  this  thing  is  no  good  for  Ohio!" 

The  boy  stood  in  amazement  looking  at  it,  so  dif- 
ferent from  what  he  had  fondly  hoped  it  might  be. 
His  father  turned  away  and  left  him,  but  still  he 
stood  studying  the  situation.  Soon  happened  along 
a  flock  of  his  mother's  fowls;  they  came  to  the 
alfalfa  patch  and  began  an  eager  search  for  leaves ; 
one  by  one  they  plucked  them  off  till  nearly  every 
plant  was  stripped  bare,  then  walked  away.  "  Aha !" 
cried  the  boy ;  ' '  I  see  a  light  now, ' '  and  he  went  to 
the  well  ^nd  pumped  a  tub  full  of  water,  which  he 
carried  and  emptied  carefully  down  by  the  strongest 
root  that  he  could  find.  It  was  early  August  and 
the  land  was  dry.  To  keep  away  the  chickens  he 
took  an  old  barrel,  knocked  the  heads  out  of  it  and 
put  it  over  his  alfalfa  plant.  In  a  little  more  than 
three  weeks  he  was  ready  to  go  back  to  his  work  on 
the  ranch  and  he  went  to  say  good  bye  to  his  alfalfa 
patch.  To  his  delight  the  stalk  of  alfalfa  had 
thrived  for  its  wetting  and  its  protection  and  had 
grown  out  through  the  top  of  the  barrel !  Joyfully 


INTRODUCTION,  15 

the  boy  called  his  father,  ' i  Come  here ;  see  what  my 
alfalfa  has  done!"  And  the  sire,  amazed  and  be- 
wildered at  first,  stood  there  scratching  his  old  gray 
head  and  smiling  an  amused,  puzzled  smile.  Finally 
he  turned  and  said:  "Son,  do  you  suppose  that  I 
want  to  grow  a  crop  that  won't  grow  till  you  put  a 
barrel  over  it  ? "  The  lad  laughed  and  said  no  more, 
but  went  back  to  his  mountains  >and  the  alfalfa 
fields,  remembering  the  one  stalk  of  alfalfa  that  had 
succeeded  and  saying,  "I  know  that  alfalfa  can  be 
grown  in  Ohio.  If  one  stalk  will  grow  as  that  one 
grew,  why  can't  a  man  grow  a  thousand?  If  he  can 
grow  a  thousand,  why  can't  he  grow  a  million,  why 
can't  he  cover  his  farm  with  alfalfa?" 

The  ranch  was  not  just  the  same  to  the  boy  when 
he  came  back  to  it,  not  just  the  same  because  he  had 
ever  before  him  the  image  of  the  sweetheart  left  be- 
hind. Yet  it  was  a  happy  place,  and  he  went  tumul- 
tuously  into  the  work  again,  strong  as  a  young  giant, 
eager  to  do,  finding  no  day  long  enough  for  him. 
Now  was  time  of  happy  dreams,  and  after  a  time 
the  dreams  began  to  materialize  as  he  mixed  mud 
and  made  "adobes,"  or  "dobies,"  as  the  boys  called 
them,  and  hauled  down  logs  from  far  up  the  canyon, 
for  She  was  coming  and  a  house  must  be  made  ready 
for  her. 

There  were  wonderful  letters  coming,  too,  and 
often  the  boy  would  be  seen  on  Sundays  sitting  far 
up  on  the  rocky  hillside,  away  from  the  confusion  and 
talk  of  the  cowboys,  reading  the  last  letter  that  She 
had  written,  or  writing  one  in  reply  to  it.  The  work 


16  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

of  the  ranch  was  much  the  same  as  it  had  been  save 
that  the  ricks  of  alfalfa  grew  larger  and  larger  each 
year  and  the  problem  of  making  and  using  the  hay 
grew  to  be  portentous.  The  mountains  remained 
the  same  always,  and  the  boy  loved  them  deeply  and 
climbed  them  eagerly,  going  up  where  never  white 
man  had  been  before,  just  to  gaze  off  afar  to  other 
snowy  ranges,  and  across  sunny  yellow  valleys  in 
the  desert,  beautiful  from  afar.  All  the  cowboys 
loved  him  and  worked  faithfully  for  him ;  every  one 
worked  as  hard  as  he  could  and  the  cattle  waxed  fat 
on  a  thousand  hills. 

In  November  it  was  that  the  letter  came,  the  letter 
written  in  that  familiar  crabbed  yet  plain  handwrit- 
ing that  the  father  used.  Nearly  always  the  father's 
letters  gave  the  boy  much  pleasure.  He  opened  this 
one  expecting  it  to  be  like  the  others  that  had  come, 
but  it  was  a  shock  to  find  in  it  a  totally  different 
note.  It  read  like  this:  "My  boy,  I  wish  you  to 
come  home.  Times  are  hard  back  here;  hired  men 
are  no  good  any  more.  I  am  getting  old  and  infirm. 
I  need  you  very  much.  Come  home  and  help  me 
with  the  farm.  I  do  not  see  how  I  can  get  along 
without  you  longer." 

The  letter  gave  the  boy  a  rude  shock.  All  at  once 
he  realized  how  he  loved  the  wild  ranch  with  its  free- 
dom, its  responsibility,  its  opportunities  for  doing 
things.  He  loved  every  hill  and  every  mesa  and 
every  canyon.  Half  of  the  canyons  he  had  named, 
some  of  them  he  only  had  ridden  through.  He 
loved  the  sun  and  air,  the  yellow  bunchgrass,  the 


INTRODUCTION.  17 

solemn  pines.  He  loved  the  horses  that  he  rode  and 
the  great  herd  of  cattle  in  his  charge,  and  his  com- 
rades, rough  as  bears  and  loving  as  brothers.  So 
he  carried  the  letter  in  his  pocket  with  a  sad  heart 
for  a  day  or  two,  when  little  Billie  Barnson,  who 
was  riding  beside  him,  turned  to  him  and  said: 
"Joe,  what  in  thunder  is  the  matter  with  you!  Has 
your  girl  gone  back  on  you?"  "No,  Billie,  that  is 
not  what  is  the  matter, "  and  in  a  few  words  he  laid 
bare  his  heart;  he  ought  to  leave  the  mountains, 
perhaps  forever,  and  he  dreaded  to  go.  "Why,  Joe, 
I 'm  ashamed  of  you. ' '  "Ashamed,  Billie !  Why  are 
you  ashamed  of  me!"  "Well,  Joe,  if  I  had  had  a 
father  as  good  as  yours  has  been  [Billie  had  never 
known  his  father]  and  in  his  old  age  he  asked  me  to 
come  home  and  help  him,  I'd  go."  That  decided  it. 
i '  I  think  you  are  right,  Billie.  I  >m  going. "  "  Well, 
I  want  to  see  you  smile  then."  "All  right,  Billie, 
I'll  go,  and  I'll  smile  too,"  replied  the  boy,  and  his 
heart  grew  light  again  as  he  began  to  turn  his 
thoughts  toward  home  once  more,  and  the  simple 
but  satisfying  joys  of  the  homeland. 

The  homecoming  occurred  just  before  Christmas 
time  of  the  year  1889.  It  was  a  very  joyous  home- 
coming. The  kind  and  rejoiced  old  father,  the  old 
mother  happy  to  see  her  son,  and  the  things  made 
dear  by  old  association,  all  these  conspired  to  make 
full  the  cup  of  joy;  and  beside  near  by  lived  the 
sweetheart.  So  the  boy  was  very  happy  for  some 
days.  After  that  he  began  to  explore  again  the  old 
farm.  It  was  a  good  farm,  of  196  acres,  mostly 


18  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

meadow  and  pasture  land,  with  a  fine  bit  of  wood- 
land, and  about  50  acres  part  of  the  time  under  the 
plow.  It  was  farmed  in  the  old-fashioned  way — 
corn  followed  by  wheat  and  wheat  by  clover  and 
timothy.  Hogs  were  kept  and  cattle;  timothy  hay 
was  sold  with  wheat,  pigs,  fat  steers,  potatoes, 
parsnips,  pears,  grapes  and  a  few  minor  items.  The 
father  was  a  careful  man,  economical  to  a  degree, 
hard  working  and  patient.  He  loved  his  land  and 
cared  for  it  as  best  he  could,  saving  every  scrap  of 
manure  and  tilling  the  soil  with  diligence.  He  loved 
his  animals  and  fed  them  well.  His  driving  mare 
was  almost  too  wide  to  get  between  the  shafts;  his 
cattle  knew  him  and  would  stand  to  be  rubbed  and 
petted.  It  was  through  no  lack  of  industry  or  in- 
telligence that  the  father  had  not  of  late  years  made 
the  farm  pay ;  it  was  due  mainly  to  his  following  an 
unprofitable  system  of  farming. 

When  the  boy  came  home  there  was  an  old  lame 
negro  man  helping  do  the  farm  work,  old  "  Uncle 
Sam"  they  called  him,  a  faithful  old  soul  but  slow 
and  feeble.  In  the  feedlot  were  about  eight  steers, 
maybe  twenty  pigs  were  being  fattened,  in  the  crib 
probably  500  bushels  of  corn,  in  the  mows  maybe  50 
tons  of  hay.  The  boy  took  it  all  in  very  rapidly 
and  a  great  hunger  for  the  old  ranch  came  over  him, 
a  hunger  and  a  longing  for  its  wide  free  life  and 
its  endless  range  of  activities.  To  add  to  his  unrest 
a  letter  followed  him,  a  letter  from  the  manager.  It 
read  like  this:  "Come  back,  Joe,  as  soon  as  you 
can.  Your  place  is  awaiting  you,  and  more  wages  if 


INTRODUCTION.  19 

you  think  best,  and  we  will  build  the  house  for  your 
sweetheart,  and  you  shall  be  your  own  boss.  Come 
back  as  soon  as  you  have  your  visit  out. ' ' 

Small  wonder  then  that  the  boy  soon  began  seek- 
ing to  frame  some  explanation  or  excuse  to  offer  the 
father,  some  way  to  tell  him  that  he  could  not  stay 
to  care  for  the  little  farm,  with  the  great  ranch 
calling  him.  And  the  father  could  read  the  boy's 
mind  like  an  open  book,  so  one  morning  after  family 
prayers  he  said :  ' t  My  boy,  I  wish  to  talk  business 
with  you.  I  suppose  you  did  great  things  in  the 
West.  You  probably  had  2,000  cattle  there,  if  you 
say  you  did.  I  don't  know,  as  I  never  saw  that  many 
cattle  together  and  never  expect  to;  but  I  wish  to 
show  you  that  this  old  farm  is  not  played  out  either. 
Now  see  here,  here  is  what  we  have  done  this  year. ' ' 
Then  he  took  down  from  the  shelf  his  old  account 
book  and  read  off  the  items,  all  duly  set  down  in 
black  and  white,  the  wheat  that  he  had  sold,  and  the 
hay,  the  pigs  and  the  potatoes  and  the  cattle.  And 
together  they  carefully  footed  it  all  up.  It  amounted 
altogether  to  -a  little  less  than  $800.  Eight  hun- 
dred dollars !  It  came  over  the  boy  the  good  salary 
that  he  had  forsaken  in  the  West  and  all  the  bright 
hopes  of  that  golden  land  and  his  heart  went  down 
like  lead.  "What,"  he  said  to  himself,  "have  I 
given  up  all  my  bright  prospects,  all  my  plans  and 
aspirations  to  come  back  and  manage  a  farm  that 
does  not  produce  more  than  $800  a  year?  Why, 
with  such  an  income  as  that,  with  taxes  to  be  paid 
and  repairs  to  'be  made  and  all  expenses  to  be  met, 


20  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

I  can  not  so  muck  as  keep  old  Uncle  Sam.  I  must 
myself  get  out  with  the  lantern  before  breakfast  and 
feed  and  curry  the  horses  and  begin  over  again  to 
do  all  that  drudgery  that  I  had  only  lately  escaped. ' ' 
It  was  not  a  very  worthy  thought,  but  it  added  to  his 
perplexity. 

The  old  father  waited  anxiously  for  the  boy's  de- 
cision. Very  gently  he  said:  "My  boy,  when  you 
were  with  me  we  made  more  money  than  this.  The 
farm  then  was  in  better  condition  and  times  were 
not  so  hard.  I  am  too  old  now  to  develop  it  as  it 
should  be  developed  and  I  am  tired.  My  happiest 
memories  are  of  the  time  when  I  was  strong  enough 
to  be  called  a  man,  and  you  were  my  boy,  helping 
me.  Now  I  am  tired  of  being  the  man;  I  wish  you 
to  be  the  man.  Won't  you  be  the  man,  let  me  be  the 
boy  and  help  you?"  There  was  silence  for  a  little 
time  while  many  thoughts  passed  rapidly  through 
the  boy's  mind,  then  he  came  to  decision.  "Yes, 
father,  I'll  stay.  I'll  take  hold  of  the  old  farm  and 
do  what  I  can  with  it.  I  think  we  can  make  it  profit- 
able after  a  time,  and  you  may  help  me." 

"G-ood,"  the  old  man  exclaimed.  "Now  you  go 
ahead  and  do  whatever  you  wish  to  do.  I'll  give  you 
chance  to  do  it,  for  I'll  feed  the  cattle  and  the  pigs. 
I  can  feed  them  better  than  any  man  you  can  hire, 
and  you  know  it."  "Of  course  you  can,"  replied 
the  boy.  Then :  <  <  Father,  let 's  go  and  take  a  walk. ' ' 
"All  right;  where  shall  we  go?"  "Oh,  anywhere; 
just  out  to  look  at  the  farm  again."  Together  they 
sallied  out,  the  father  happy  as  a  child,  the  son  glad 


INTRODUCTION.  21 

that  it  was  settled,  the  uncertainty  over,  yet  uneasy, 
feeling  within  him  a  rising  tide  of  restlessness,  an 
aching  to  get  to  work  somewhere. 

They  did  not  walk  very  far.  Just  beyond  the 
barn  was  a  field  of  flat  clay  land,  wet,  mostly  poor 
and  unprofitable.  All  over  the  field  rose  little  clay 
chimneys,  the  work  of  crayfish.  The  boy  stopped 
here.  "Father,  may  I  drain  this  field?"  "Yes;  it 
ought  to  have  been  done  years  ago,"  was  the  reply 
full  of  hearty  encouragement.  The  boy  went  to*  the 
village  and  came  home  with  a  ditching  spade  with  a 
blade  18  inches  long.  He  stretched  a  line  where  the 
first  ditch  was  to  be  laid  and  began  digging  a  long 
narrow  ditch  in  which  to  lay  tiles.  How  happy  he 
was  all  at  once!  Those  ranch  muscles  of  his  were 
in  good  training;  mightily  he  dug.  And  as  he  be- 
gan pushing  his  muscles  against  that  soil  he  began 
to  believe  in  it,  to  have  faith  in  it.  And  after  he 
got  down  in  the  ditch  and  had  rubbed  the  mud  on 
him  well  he  forgot  the  old  ranch.  When  at  last  the 
ditch  was  dug  and  the  tiles  laid  and  covered  there 
was  one  strip  of  land  dry,  only  a  beginning,  true, 
but  it  was  a  beginning.  The  boy  stood  there  that 
afternoon  as  he  finished  covering  the  tile  and  leaned 
on  his  spade  and  dreamed,  and  talked  aloud  to  the 
old  field.  "Old  field,"  he  said,  "some  day  I  will 
make  you  all  dry.  Some  day,  old  field,  I  will  make 
your  soil  rich.  Some  day  I  will  cover  you  over  with 
clover,  and  with  corn,  and  with  alfalfa  too.  Some 
day,  old  field,  out  of  you  shall  sprout  and  grow  a 
home,  a  home  for  that  sweetheart  of  mine."  And 


22  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

he  looked  at  his  watch;  it  was  past  5  o'clock,  so  he 
went  home  and  shed  off  his  muddy  overalls  and  went 
across  the  fields  to  see  the  sweetheart,  happier  than 
any  king. 

Spring  came  in  all  its  maze  of  bewildering  hope 
and  promise  and  beauty,  as  it  comes  in  central  Ohio, 
and  the  boy  was  supremely  happy.  There  was  just 
the  joy  of  seeing  God's  miracles  all  around  him,  the 
bursting  buds,  the  unfolding  leaves,  the  blossoms  on 
every  twig,  the  tender  grass  hiding  the  dull,  ugly 
earth,  the  dewdrops  sparkling  in  the  morning  light 
and  all  the  little  birds  singing  cheerily  their  songs 
of  gratitude  and  joy.  There  seemed  something 
prophetic  in  it  all,  and  something  very  wonderful, 
Grod's  forgiveness-,  G-od's  fulfillment  of  His  gra- 
cious promises.  In  a  dim  way  the  boy  understood 
and  believed,  and  realized  his  own  duty  in  the  mat- 
ter and  bent  eagerly  to  the  task,  seeking  in  a  way  to 
make  himself  partner  with  the  Almighty  to  cover 
over  the  few  acres  entrusted  to  his  charge  with  grow- 
ing things,  with  bloom  and  with  beauty. 

Yes,  it  was  the  joyous  seedtime  when  all  one's 
hopes  spring  up  anew  and  he  has  prophetic  insight 
into  what  may  be  and  what  should  be,  not  only  of 
the  good  green  earth,  but  of  one's  own  soul  as  well. 
Every  morning  bright  and  early  the  boy  was  astir  in 
the  fields,  with  a  faithful  colored  man,  Frank,  to 
help  him.  He  had  brought  with  him  from  Utah  two 
bags  of  alfalfa  seed  and  this  he  wished  to  sow.  But 
the  father  was  much  alarmed.  "No,  my  boy,  we 
cannot  afford  to  sow  so  much  as  that  at  one  time.  It 


INTRODUCTION.  23 

has  not  been  tried  yet.  You  may  have  that  potato 
patch  down  by  the  old  orchard;  that  is  good  soil. 
Begin  there  and  if  that  succeeds  we  will  sow  more 
later  on."  The  potato  patch  had  in  it  one-third  of 
an  acre.  That  was  quite  a  coming  down  from  his 
expectations,  but  he  acquiesced  and  sowed  the  little 
field.  Fortunately  it  was  a  good  place  to  begin.  The 
land  was  a  strong  clay  loam,  fairly  well  drained.  It 
was  full  of  carbonate  of  lime,  for  all  through  it  were 
little  pebbles  of  limestone.  It  was  rich,  for  the  cattle 
had  stood  there  much  when  it  was  a  part  of  the 
orchard.  In  some  way  or  another  it  had  become 
inoculated  with  alfalfa  bacteria,  perhaps  because  the 
father  had  grown  sweet  clover  on  the  farm  for  years 
in  odd  corners  and  in  his  dooryard.  So  this  alfalfa 
started  out  vigorously  and  grew  well.  The  boy  was 
delighted.  He  had  a  path  well  trodden  where  he 
had  walked  to  see  his  first  field.  It  settled  in  his 
mind  the  question  of  whether  alfalfa  would  grow; 
he  had  no  doubt  whatever  now  that  it  would  grow. 
Eapidly  his  mind  went  on  ahead  to  the  time  when 
he  would  have  40,  maybe  100  acres  in  alfalfa.  The 
farm  at  that  time  had  in  it  only  about  50  or  60  acres 
of  land  that  could  be  plowed.  The  rest  was  wet  or 
poor  or  covered  with  trees. 

That  summer  came  another  boy  from  the  old 
ranch,  Willis.  He  was  a  wiry,  slender  lad,  just  out 
of  his  high  school,  and  had  spent  about  a  year  at 
ranching,  getting  health  and  strength  there  prepara- 
tory to  going  further  with  his  education.  He  did 
not  then  dream  of  becoming  a  farmer,  yet  he  was 


24  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

as  enthusiastic  as  the  older  brother  over  the  beauty 
and  promise  of  the  little  alfalfa  field.  He  took  off 
his  coat  and  helped  with  the  farm  work  and  enjoyed 
it  hugely  till  September  came,  when  he  went  away  to 
school  again.  It  happened  that  he  never  finished 
his  education  in  school;  the  confinement  of  the 
schoolroom  was  too  much  for  his  health,  so  fortu- 
nately for  the  farm  he  came  back  a  few  years  later 
to  be  a  partner,  and  later  to  have  almost  entire  man- 
agement of  the  farm.  Willis  dreams  dreams  of  his 
own  and  makes  them  come  true,  and  he  loyally  car- 
ries out  the  plans  of  the  writer.  Woodland  Farm 
owes  its  final  development  very  largely  to  the  en- 
ergy and  executive  ability  of  this  younger  brother 
Willis.  And  there  was  another  brother  yet,  a  sturdy 
lad,  Charles,  growing  up  at  home;  he  grew  to  be 
the  largest  and  strongest  of  them  all  and  mightily 
he  bent  his  muscle  to  help  with  the  work.  Later  he 
too  spent  years  in  the  West,  ranching  with  sheep 
and  cattle,  and  harvesting  alfalfa  hay  there.  Then 
he  also  came  home  and  found  on  Woodland  Farm 
ample  scope  for  all  his  energies.  It  is  true,  is  it  not, 
that  any  work  is  as  big  as  the  man  who  undertakes 
that  work? 

That  first  summer  was  uneventful  save  in  the  fact 
that  the  alfalfa  grew  so  well  on  the  trial  patch.  It 
was  a  year  of  drouth  and  the  corn  crop  was  nearly 
ruined,  only  about  500  bushels  in  all  being  harvested. 
The  chief  events  were  the  long  and  delightful  drives 
that  the  boy  took  with  his  sweetheart  and  the  fre- 
quent walks  he  took  to  watch  his  alfalfa.  When 


INTRODUCTION.  25 

fall  came  the  sweetheart  and  the  boy  drove  out  one 
day  along  quiet  byways  and  gathered  a  buggy  load 
of  wild  flowers  and  vines  and  with  these  decorated 
the  sweetheart's  home,  and  that  night  they  were 
married.  Next  day  they  went  on  a  honeymoon  jour- 
ney, with  the  same  old  horse  and  buggy,  out  again 
into  the  country,  driving  slow  beneath  the  old  oaks 
that  overarched  the  road,  and  more  than  ever  the 
boy  resolved  that  his  life  should  not  be  a  failure; 
that  in  some  way  he  would  strive  mightily  to  be 
worthy  of  her,  who  had  been  an  inspiration  to  him 
since  she  was  a  merry  child  of  eleven,  with  sunny 
curls  hanging  down  on  her  shoulders.  And  as  soon 
as  they  were  married  he  began  digging  for  the  foun- 
dations of  a  little  cottage  in  the  corner  of  the  wood- 
land, a  cottage  where  she  might  be  mistress.  All 
winter  whenever  it  was  warm  enough  he  worked  on 
the  cottage,  so  that  it  was  done  nearly  altogether 
by  the  labor  of  his  own  hands  saving  that  the  sweet- 
heart 's  father  came  to  help  now  and  then.  In  June 
they  moved  in.  All  was  fresh  and  new  and  clean, 
the  whole  air  was  full  of  hope  and  life  was  very 
joyous  then. 

That  spring  they  sowed  another  field  to  alfalfa, 
this  time  a  little  field  of  about  3  acres.  And  this 
field  taught  a  much  needed  lesson.  It  began  down 
by  the  creek  where  the  land  was  low  and  wet,  ran 
on  up  over  a  little  hill  where  the  land  was  dry  and 
filled  with  limestone  gravel,  extended  on  back  over 
some  flat  cold  poor  clay.  And  on  only  one  acre  of 
the  three  did  the  alfalfa  thrive;  that  acre  lay  on 


Zb  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

the  rich  dry  hill,  full  of  limestone  pebbles.  Down 
by  the  stream  the  alfalfa  was  weak,  sickly,  soon 
taken  by  the  crowding  grasses  and  weeds.  Back  on 
the  flat  wet  poor  clay  it  amounted  to  very  little.  On 
the  dry  rich  soil  full  of  carbonate  of  lime  it  thrived 
beautifully.  So  there  the  boy  stood  and  pondered; 
the  lesson  was  plain,  though  unwlecome.  "It  is  evi- 
dent that  this  farm  is  not  ready  for  alfalfa,"  he 
said.  "I'll  make  it  ready.  I'll  drain  the  wet  land. 
I'll  enrich  the  poor  land.  I'll  grow  alfalfa;  some 
day  I'll  have  40  acres  of  it,  but  not  so  soon  as  I 
thought  I  would."  So  then  began  the  work  of  lay- 
ing tile  underdrains  in  earnest.  The  father  had  laid 
many  in  his  day,  but  not  nearly  enough,  judging  by 
the  new  standard  that  alfalfa  set  up. 

And  that  fall  the  kind  old  father  died,  died  in  a 
peaceful  and  happy  sort  of  way,  as  almost  anyone 
would  be  glad  to  die.  He  had  been  fairly  well  that 
summer,  and  had  insisted  in  helping  in  the  hay  field, 
raking  with  the  horse  rake  and  cheerily,  almost  glee- 
fully, showing  the  men  that  he  was  by  no  means 
worn  out.  One  morning  he  arose  early,  as  was  his 
habit,  and  went  out  to  work  in  his  garden  before 
the  breakfast  time,  and  there  the  boy  had  his  last 
talk  with  the  old  man,  and  arranged  with  him  about 
going  to  the  fair  soon  to  come  off.  After  breakfast 
the  father  went  to  the  barn  and  hitched  his  gentle 
mare  Daisy  to  a  spring  wagon  and  got  ready  to  go 
to  the  village  on  some  errand,  probably  to  take  some 
vegetables  to  market.  When  the  horse  stopped  at 
the  front  gate,  coming  from  the  barn,  no  one  seemed 


INTRODUCTION.  27 

with  her,  and  when  the  women  of  the  house  went  out 
to  see  they  found  the  old  man  lying  in  the  wagon 
as  though  peacefully  sleeping,  with  a  half  smile  on 
his  lips,  dead.  It  was  a  fitting  end.  He  had  lived  a 
strenuous  life,  he  had  been  good,  he  had  been  kind ; 
he  had  been  builder  not  destroyer,  and  wherever  his 
foot  had  been  put  down  there  rich  grasses  and 
clovers  had  sprung  up. 

The  writer  makes  no  pretense  of  being  as  good  or 
careful  a  farmer  as  his  father  was.  We  try  to  fol- 
low in  his  footsteps,  that  is  all,  and  we  do  things  in 
a  larger  way  than  he  in  his  old  age  cared  to  do  them. 
Yes,  the  father  was  gone,  and  with  him  the  safe 
counselor,  and  the  boy  all  at  once  realized  how  much 
he  had  depended  upon  this  counsel.  He  could  do 
as  he  pleased  now,  but  he  was  not  glad  of  the  chance. 
He  would  have  been  very  glad  indeed  if  he  could 
have  had  the  continued  company  of  the  old  father. 

He  took  account  of  stock.  The  farm  was  not  pay- 
ing ;  the  crops  that  grew  upon  it  when  all  sold  could 
not  possibly  bring  money  enough  to  make  it  a  busi- 
ness worth  while.  Much  of  the  land  was  too  poor 
to  be  profitable.  The  little  alfalfa  fields  paid  well, 
but  they  were  but  small  spaces  after  all ;  the  rest  of 
the  farm  was  mostly  unfit  for  alfalfa.  The  farm 
needed  enriching,  needed  further  drainage.  If  ever 
it  paid  it  must  be  made  rich.  How!  Well,  there 
was  stable  manure.  The  boy  knew  about  that;  the 
old  father  had  been  a  most  careful  user  of  manure ; 
he  saved  all  that  he  could,  but  he  fed  his  cattle  out 
in  the  woods  where  the  manure  was  largely  wasted. 


28  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

The  boy  reasoned :  ' i  Our  practices  are  wrong.  We 
sell  off  timothy  hay  and  wheat,  and  thus  load  by 
load  we  sell  away  the  fertility  of  the  farm,  and  what 
we  do  feed  is  largely  wasted,  as  we  do  not  get  the 
manure.  Now  if  ever  we  build  this  farm  up  we 
must  feed  on  the  land  the  crops  that  we  grow  upon 
the  land.  And  if  we  make  any  money  in  feeding 
animals  we  must  feed  younger  animals  than  we 
have  been  feeding.  We  must  feed  some  sort  of 
babies.  Now  what  shall  it  be?/' 

Then  he  thought  of  the  lamb.  "Why,  here  is  the 
lamb,"  he  said.  "He  is  a  baby,  a  gentle  little  fellow. 
One  can  put  him  in  the  barn,  can  feed  him  there  in- 
shelter.  His  manure  will  all  be  saved  in  good  order 
and  can  go  direct  to  the  fields  with  no  wastage,  and 
from  the  feed  given  him  one  ought  to  make  good 
gain  and  thus  make  money. ' '  He  had  already  a  little 
flock  of  ewes  which  were  his  pets  and  his  darlings. 
To  them  he  added  now  a  little  bunch  of  200  feeding 
lambs,  building  a  shed  to  hold  them.  As  he  had  no 
money  only  what  he  borrowed,  he  bought  the  small- 
est and  cheapest  lambs  that  he  could  find.  They 
were  natives,  fairly  healthy,  and  weighed  55  Ibs. 
when  he  put  them  in  the  sheds  in  November.  He 
had  carefully  dipped  them  in  a  half  barrel,  and  had 
himself  as  thoroughly  dipped  as  the  lambs,  so  they 
werje  free  from  ticks.  All  winter  he  fed  them  care- 
fully, every  feed  with  his  own  hands.  Not  knowing 
anything  about  feeding  lambs,  he  had  written  to 
Prof.  E.  W.  Stewart  to  get  his  advice  as  to  how 
they  ought  to  be  fed,  and  he  had  told  him  how  to 


INTRODUCTION.  29 

compound  a  ration  with  wheat  bran,  oilmeal,  corn 
and  mixed  timothy  and  clover  hay.  He  had  too  little 
alfalfa  hay  yet  to  make  much  show  in  the  feeding 
barn.  The  lambs  throve;  they  became  very  fat  in- 
deed and  in  May  weighed  108y2  Ibs.  In  fact  in  all 
the  years  that  lambs  have  been  fed  on  Woodland 
Farm  no  such  gain  has  since  been  secured,  which 
simply  shows  that  a  greenhorn  may  do  as  well  as 
an  expert,  if  he  has  his  heart  in  it  and  is  earnest 
and  careful.  The  boy  had  kept  careful  account  of 
what  the  lambs  had  eaten  so  he  knew  what  the  gain 
had  cost  him.  When  he  had  figured  it  all  up  he 
found  that  he  had  made  a  clear  profit  from  feeding 
these  lambs  of  $115,  the  first  real  profit  from 
Woodland  Farm  since  his  new  venture  in  manage- 
ment. It  was  a  small  sum,  yet  mightily  it  encour- 
aged him.  And  then  he  dreamed  another  dream,  out 
there  on  the  sunny  side  of  the  barn.  Thinking  it 
over,  he  said:  "Some  day  we'll  feed  a  thousand 
lambs  on  this  farm."  But  he  told  no  one  that,  not 
even  his  wife,  for  all  would  have  smiled  in  derision, 
for  had  he  not  bought  part  of  the  hay  that  he  had 
fed  this  first  200? 

But  there  was  more  manure  to  haul  out  than  ever 
before,  and  it  was  put  where  corn  would  be  grown 
and  where  alfalfa  might  be  expected  to  succeed, 
and  more  alfalfa  was  sown.  Wherever  the  manure 
had  been  put  out  and  the  drains  laid  the  alfalfa  suc- 
ceeded. Inoculation  took  care  of  itself  on  Woodland 
Farm  after  the  first  start,  because  of  the  use  of 
manure  made  from  alfalfa  hay  perhaps,  and  every 


30  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

little  field  added  to  those  first  started  succeeded  in 
almost  direct  proportion  to  the  amount  of  manure 
used  and  the  thoroughness  of  the  underdrainage. 

The  next  winter  300  lambs  were  fed,  then  350,  then 
350  again,  and  then  a  larger  barn  was  built  and  700 
were  fed.  The  work  grew  easier  and  easier;  wheat 
was  dropped  from  the  rotation,  and  no  more  timothy 
seed  was  sown.  Lamb  feeding  promised  profit,  so 
finally  it  was  resolved  that  lambs  would  be  fed  and 
crops  grown  that  lambs  liked,  and  nothing  else. 
Meanwhile  Willis  and  the  writer  bent  their  backs 
energetically  in  the  ditches,  draining  more  and  more 
land,  and  hiring  men  to  dig  what  they  could  not. 
Charlie,  too,  growing  up  a  stalwart  boy,  helped 
cheerfully,  and  the  three  brothers  were  full  of  faith. 
And  yet  neighbors  smiled,  and  some  there  were  to 
sneer.  It  is  true  that  when  the  new  barn  was  built 
with  a  mow  that  could  hold  100  tons  of  hay  men 
asked  smilingly  if  we  thought  we  could  borrow 
money  enough  to  buy  hay  enough  to  fill  it,  and  went 
off  laughing  when  we  declared  that  we  would  fill  it 
from  our  own  alfalfa  meadows  some  day.  No  one 
else  in  the  country  was  trying  to  grow  alfalfa,  so 
far  as  we  knew,  no  one  else  in  Ohio,  though  there 
was  some  grown  in  Onondaga  Co.,  New  York.  Well, 
we  filled  the  barn  at  last,  and  had  an  overflow.  We 
fed  a  thousand  lambs  as  we  had  dreamed,  and  we 
fed  1,200.  We  had  learned  how  at  last.  Lamb  feed- 
ing is  an  art,  a  science ;  it  is  not  yet  all  learned. 

It  had  not  all  been  smooth  sailing,  this  lamb  feed- 
ing. More  than  one  disaster  had  overtaken  us. 


INTRODUCTION.  31 

There  had  been  bad  years,  low  prices,  diseased 
lambs,  all  sorts  of  troubles.  Grimly  we  had  held  on. 
1 '  We  can  ?t  afford  to  change  now, ' '  we  declared.  * l  We 
have  made  too  many  mistakes  in  what  we  are  doing. 
To  change  now  would  be  to  lose  all  we  have  gained 
by  making  these  mistakes;  we  don't  have  to  make 
the  same  mistakes  the  second  time."  So  we  held 
on,  confident  that  our  scheme  was  a  safe  and  reason- 
able one,  based  on  alfalfa  growing,  the  alfalfa  fed  to 
lambs,  the  manure  put  out  for  corn,  the  well  en- 
riched corn  stubble  sown  to  alfalfa,  often  with  addi- 
tional phosphorus  and  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
corn  and  alfalfa  fed  'back  to  lambs  again. 

But  during  these  years  we  were  in  debt,  a  little  at 
first,  but  steadily  the  debt  grew.  We  owed  for  labor 
to  dig  drains,  we  owed  for  labor  and  materials  to 
build  fences  and  barns.  We  did  all  the  labor  that 
we  could  do  with  our  own  hands,  but  we  were  too  im- 
patient to  wait  to  develop  the  place  ourselves. 
"Farming  either  is  or  is  not  a  business  proposi- 
tion, "  we  declared.  "If  it  is  a  safe  business  propo- 
sition this  thing  will  pay  some  day,  and  if  it  is  no<t 
we  will  break  and  be  done  with  it.  If  we  can't  farm 
as  a  business  proposition  we  prefer  to  break  up 
trying  it."  And  ever  and  often  the  writer,  the 
older  of  the  brothers,  declared  to  Willis,  his  willing 
lieutenant:  "It  is  only  a  question  of  one  good  year, 
just  one  good  year,  and  the  lambs  will  pay  every 
dollar  that  we  owe  and  we  will  have  the  ditches  laid, 
the  buildings  built,  the  fields  made  fertile,  and  it 
will  all  be  ours." 


32  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

That  year  came  when  we  had  1,200  lambs.  We 
had  learned  how  to  feed  them  by  this  time,  and 
they  were  as  alike  as  peas,  and  ripe  and  fine  as  they 
could  be.  The  commission  merchants  down  in  Buf- 
falo had  learned  to  watch  for  our  lambs  and  to  prize 
them.  They  had  an  alfalfa  quality  about  them  that 
no  one  could  attain  except  he  had  alfalfa.  We  had 
fed  them  this  winter  altogether  on  alfalfa  hay  and 
ear  corn,  all  grown  at  home,  and  we  had  hay  left 
over  enough  to  sell  to  our  neighbors ;  some  of  whom 
needed  hay  with  which  to  do  their  spring  plowing. 
Well,  we  sold  the  lambs,  one  load  at  a  time,  and  the 
checks  "came  back  and  we  laid  them  down  on  the 
bankers '  counter.  Now  we  owed  no  one  in  the  world 
but  this  bank,  but  we  owed  it  a  lot  of  money.  Stead- 
ily despite  the  fact  that  we  had  economized,  had  rid- 
den in  our  old  buggies  and  worn  our  old  clothes, 
this  debt  had  grown,  and  at  last  it  had  become  a 
serious  burden  on  our  minds ;  it  seemed  incredible 
that  it  would  ever  be  paid. 

At  last  the  last  check  had  come.  With  a  fast  beat- 
ing heart  the  writer  laid  it  down  on  the  bankers' 
counter.  "Here  it  is.  The  lambs  are  all  sold;  is 
it  enough  to  pay  that  note?"  The  banker  smiled; 
he  was  a  good  fellow.  "Yes,  plenty  to  pay  it,  and 
some  over,"  and  he  handed  the  note  through  the 
window,  cancelled.  The  writer  looked  at  it;  how 
huge  then  the  amount  of  it  seemed !  He  tore  off  the 
signature  and  turned  anxiously  again.  "Tell  me," 
he  asked,  "how  much  is  there  left!"  The  banker 
figured  for  a  moment  and  presented  with  a  smiling 


INTRODUCTION.  33 

face  the  bank  book,  where  on  the  right  side  of  the 
page  was  a  credit  balance  of  $800.  The  debt  was  paid. 
The  tiles  were  laid,  or  a  lot  of  them  were  laid  at  any 
rate,  the  barns  were  built,  the  home  was  paid  for 
and  there  was  actually  money  in  the  bank!  The 
writer  feels  that  there  are  many  happy  days  ahead 
of  him,  but  never  again  expects  to  experience  the 
relief,  the  thankfulness,  the  joy  that  came  to  him 
when  his  first  victory  was  won  for  Woodland  Farm, 
and  the  brothers  fully  shared  the  feeling. 

The  writer  jumped  into  his  old  buggy  and  drove 
home,  his  face  wreathed  in  smiles  and  his  heart 
singing  a  joyous  song.  As  he  neared  his  home  the 
thought  came:  "Why,  I  will  have  some  fun  with 
the  sweetheart.  I  will  make  believe  the  thing  has 
ended  badly.  I  will  tell  her  some  sort  of  story  to 
deceive  her,  just  at  first ;  afterward  I  will  undeceive 
her."  But  when  he  drew  near  the  little  cottage  she 
stood  there  in  the  open  door  waiting  for  him  to  come, 
looking  mit  at  him,  all  unconscious,  yet  on  her  face 
was  revealed  all  that  the  thing  meant  to  her,  and  his 
heart  became  suddenly  very  tender  and  it  came  over 
him  with  a  shock  of  understanding.  "Why,  I  never 
dreamed  that  the  girl  cared  like  this.  Did  she  per- 
haps wonder  whether  the  home  would  be  sold,  the 
place  where  she  had  planted  flowers  and  vines,  the 
place  where  her  babies  were  born?  Where  she  had 
been  so  brave,  so  strong,  so  patient  and  helpful  all 
these  years,  and  yet  cared  so  much  as  this?"  So 
all  his  foolish,  stories  were  put  aside  and  he  told  her 
the  glad  truth. 


34  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

And  what  had  the  farm  done  that  year  ?  After  all 
the  items  of  sales  and  expenditure  were  footed  up  it 
was  found  that  the  same  land  that  had  yielded  our 
father  less  than  $800  had  yielded  us  a  net  profit  of 
more  than  $2,500.  Alfalfa  had  worked  this  miracle. 
It  had  given  us  the  hay  with  which  to  feed  the  larger 
number  of  lambs,  and  through  the  soil  enrichment 
that  it  had  given  the  fields  it  had  made  possible  the 
heavy  crop  of  corn  that  we  had  fed  to  the  lambs,  so 
really  to  alfalfa  should  be  credited  both  corn  and 
hay.  Further,  alfalfa  had  made  it  possible  to  con- 
tinue feeding  lambs.  When  we  were  beginning,  and 
were  almost  without  alfalfa  hay,  we  had  fed  largely 
of  oilmeal  and  wheat  bran  to  balance  up  the  ration. 
This  was  necessary;  experiment  proved  that.  With- 
out plenty  of  digestible  protein  in  the  ration  the 
lamb  does  not  gain  much.  We  made  good  lambs 
through  the  aid  of  the  bran  and  oilmeal,  but  it  cost 
us  too  much.  When  finally  we  had  our  own  alfalfa 
hay  to  furnish  protein  we  made  two  lots  of  lambs. 
They  had  equal  merit  in  the  beginning  as  near  as 
we  could  tell,  for  they  were  of  the  same  bunch,  se- 
lected to  get  two  like  lots.  The  one  pen  was  fed  with 
timothy  hay,  with  some  clover,  shredded  corn  fod- 
der, corn,  wheat  bran  and  a  little  oilmeal.  They 
grew  well,  but  each  pound  of  gain  made  cost  us  6y2c. 
The  second  lot  was  fed  with  good  alfalfa  hay  and 
corn  only.  With  them  the  cost  of  gain  was  only 
31/20.  As  the  price  of  lambs  declined  during  the 
nineties  we  would  have  had  to  give  up  had  not  al- 
falfa come  to  our  rescue. 


INTRODUCTION.  35 

At  tlie  present  writing  (1909)  we  are  feeding  some 
1,450  lambs,  with,  about  150  ewes  and  lambs,  and  We 
could  as  readily  feed  2,000  or  more  if  we  had  more 
shelter  for  them. 

Woodland  Farm  is  larger  now;  the  alfalfa  has 
crowded  the  line  fences  back  a  little.  It  contains 
320  acres  and  is  devoted  mainly  to  the  growing  of 
corn  and  alfalfa.  During  the  summer  of  1908  corn 
was  grown  on  90  acres  of  alfalfa  sod.  This  field  had 
been  twice  sown  to  alfalfa,  with  intervals 
when  it  was  planted  in  corn.  The  last  pe- 
riod of  alfalfa  was  a  6  year  period  for  part 
of  the  land  and  a  longer  period  for  the  remain- 
der. During  the  6  years  there  were  taken  off  at  least 
20  crops  of  hay,  certainly  20  tons  of  hay  to  each  acre. 
During  this  time  no  manure  was  put  on  the  field,  but 
on  parts  of  it  phosphorus  was  applied  in  the  shape  of 
acid  phosphate,  about  300  Ibs.  per  acre  or  maybe  a 
little  more.  The  great  crops  of  hay  taken  continually 
off  of  this  field  disturbed  our  mother,  who  finally 
spoke  in  sorrowing  tones  to  the  writer,  thus:  "  Joey, 
I  am  worrying  about  that  alfalfa  field. "  "Why, 
mother ?"  "Because  you  do  not  manure  it.  You 
haul  off  hay  and  haul  off  more  hay  and  it  seems  to 
me  you  actually  have  hollowed  the  land  out  so  that 
it  is  lower  than  it  used  to  be.  I  think  of  what  your 
father  would  say  if  he  could  see  it.  Why  don't  you 
put  some  manure  on  it,  boy?" 

I  assured  her  that  I  could  not  believe  that  the  land 
was  really  getting  poor,  and  that  we  were  putting 
the  manure  out  carefully  on  land  that  we  knew  was 


36  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

poor,  and  she  said  no  more.  When  we  plowed  the 
land  in  the  winter  of  1908-09  it  seemed  more  mellow 
and  friable  than  usual,  so  we  plowed  it  deeper  than 
it  had  usually  been  plowed.  And  when  we  disked  it 
up  in  the  spring  it  was  most  evident  that  the  field 
had  changed  its  character  somewhat,  so  loose,  mellow 
and  friable  it  seemed.  We  resolved  to  make  an  ef- 
fort to  beat  our  record  for  corn  raising,  so  we 
planted  with  care.  The  seed  was  good  and  had  been 
tested.  We  got  nearly  a  perfect  stand  over  much 
of  the  field  and  all  summer  gave  it  good  culture. 
There  was  a  most  serious  drouth  late  in  the  summer, 
which  doubtless  cut  down  our  yield  somewhat.  Yet 
50  acres  of  that  field  made  for  us  a  little  more  than 
100  bushels  of  shelled  corn  per  acre  and  the  entire 
90  acres  only  fell  a  little  short  of  making  9,000 
bushels.  This  result  astonished  us,  as  the  field  had 
in  olden  times  yielded  only  about  half  that  amount. 
In  truth  the  alfalfa  had  built  it  up  far  beyond  the 
fertility  that  it  had  had  when  a  "virgin  soil." 

Let  us  briefly  examine  this  miracle  and  see  how  it 
was  accomplished.  In  the  first  place  it  is  probable 
that  this  especial  field  has  in  it  already  about  as 
much  potash  as  it  needs  for  large  crop  production, 
since  it  is  a  glaciated  soil.  Most  of  the  field  is  well 
supplied  with  lime ;  in  truth  one  can  find  small  peb- 
bles of  limestone  sticking  all  through  the  soil.  Thus 
it  was  sweet,  and  the  alfalfa  revels  in  sweet  soil,  al- 
kaline, not  acid.  So  the  alfalfa  was  at  home  there. 
Then  the  land  had  been  thoroughly  well  under- 
drained;  thus  it  was  full  of  air.  Alfalfa  bacteria 


INTRODUCTION.  .  37 

thrive  in  soils  rich  in  lime  and  full  of  air ;  they  perish 
in  a  wet  sour  soil.  Thus  the  alfalfa  filled  all  the  soil 
with  its  rootlets,  going  down  often  as  far  as  6  feet, 
no  doubt,  and  numberless  millions  of  bacteria  work- 
ing there  were  storing  the  soil  with  nitrogen  drawn 
from  the  air.  The  phosphorus  supply  may  have 
been  somewhat  deficient;  we  bought  phosphorus  for 
part  of  the  land  and  added  that.  Then  the  land  was 
plowed;  the  plow  cut  off  millions  of  those  big  roots 
and  left  the  top  soil  one  mass  of  roots,  with  also 
many  little  rootlets  and  many  leaves  and  stems  that 
had  fallen  down.  And  the  subsoil  was  made  porous 
by  being  honeycombed  by  millions  of  the  tap  roots, 
so  the  air  penetrated  all  the  more  easily.  Thus  it  is 
seen  that  conditions  for  a  big  corn  crop  were  almost 
ideal. 

It  would  be  an  interesting  thing  to  know  just  how 
much  richer  Woodland  Farm  is  than  it  was  before 
alfalfa  began  to  grow  upon  it.  It  is  safe  to  say  that 
the  alfalfa,  yielding  on  the  average  30  tons  of  hay 
per  year  for  the  past  ten  years,  has  added  to -the  soil 
plant  food  worth  at  least  $3,000  each  year,  count- 
ing the  manure  that  has  'been  returned  and  the  work 
of  the  roots;  probably  this  is  an  underestimate,  in 
fact.  Once  we  racked  our  brains  to  find  manure 
enough,  and  never  did  find  enough.  Now  we  rack 
our  brains  again  to  find  time  to  haul  out  the  manure 
that  is  made  upon  the  farm.  Gathering  fertility  by 
the  use  of  alfalfa  is  like  rolling  a  snowball — the 
farther  you  roll  it  the  faster  it  gathers.  This  would 
not  be  true  if  the  hay  was  sold  off  of  the  farm,  but 


38  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

it  is  certainly  true  when  the  hay  is  fed  and  the 
manure  carefully  saved  and  returned,  to  make  an- 
other spot  rich  for  alfalfa  to  grow  upon. 

The  story  of  Woodland  Farm  is  'only  half  told; 
the  rest  lies  in  the  future.  We  have  some  acres  that 
yield  as  much  as  6  tons  of  hay  each  year,  yet  the 
average  of  the  whole  farm  is  less  than  4  tons.  Thus 
we  are  not  yet  inclined  to  boast  of  our  success  with 
alfalfa.  We  now  are  proceeding  to  try  to  spread 
these  good  yielding  areas.  What  is  the  secret  of  the 
lands  yielding  alfalfa  so  well?  Perhaps  we  do  not 
know  the  whole  story,  but  here  is  what  we  can  readily 
observe.  One  of  these  spots  is  a  round  hillock.  It 
is  a  strong,  tough,  tenacious  limestone  clay.  Stick- 
ing all  through  that  clay  are  bits  of  limestone  peb- 
bles, as  large  as  grains  of  corn,  as  large  as  a  man's 
foot,  and  of  all  sizes.  These  pebbles  are  of  soft  mag- 
nesian  limestone.  They  readily  decay  and  keep  the 
land  very  sweet.  Alfalfa  roots  seem  to  like  actually 
to  touch  carbonate  of  lime.  On  that  hillock  the  al- 
falfa never  gets  old.  It  is  one  of  the  most  productive 
spots  on  the  farm.  On  it  our  father  put  much  ma- 
nure, for  it  was,  when  he  bought  the  farm,  extremely 
unproductive.  We  have  not  manured  here  for  many 
years. 

On  other  lands  we  find  the  limestone  pebbles  all 
dissolved  away  in  the  surface  soil.  When  we  dig 
down  two  feet  we  find  them  in  abundance,  but  on 
the  surface  there  are  none.  Here  we  are  assuming 
that  lime  is  needed,  and  are  putting  on  more  car- 
bonate of  lime,  buying  ground  and  unburned  lime- 


INTRODUCTION.  39 

stone  and  applying  it  at  the  rate  of  about  5  tons  to 
the  acre.  Probably  that  is  too  little;  it  is  yet  too 
early  to  know.  We  feel  sure  that  when  we  have 
made  the  drainage  right  and  the  lime  content  right 
we  will  grow  as  much  alfalfa  over  all  the  farm  as 
we  now  grow  on  those  favored  spots.  Then  we  can 
proudly  boast,  sure  enough!  Then  we  can  say: 
"From  100  acres  of  land  we  harvested  500  tons  of 
alfalfa  hay."  It  may  take  time  to  reach  this  con- 
dition. It  may  not  even  come  in  my  day.  But  we 
have  boys  and  to  these  boys  we  bequeath  the  ideal, 
the  task,  and  to  them  will  fall  the  pleasant  duty  of 
spreading  these  spots  of  gloriously  beautiful  alfalfa, 
rich  and  productive  beyond  anything  else  that  could 
be  sown. 

It  may  be  of  interest  to  know  something  of 
the  present  system  of  farming  on  Woodland  Farm. 
Let  us  begin  with  the  alfalfa  sod  that  is  to  die  that 
corn  may  live.  It  is  plowed  usually  in  November 
and  during  the  winter.  Perhaps  the  field  was  mown 
off  late,  four  cuttings  being  taken  from  it,  in  antici- 
pation of  its  impending  destruction.  We  find  that 
late  cutting  is  bad  for  the  alfalfa  and  do  not  usually 
cut  it  later  than  early  in  September.  This  field  to 
be  devoted  to  corn  then  will  be  mown  off  late,  as  it 
does  not  matter  how  much  the  roots  are  weakened. 
Usually  we  plow  with  very  strongly  built  walking 
plows.  We  put  two  wheels  on  the  beam,  well  in 
front ;  one  wheel  runs  in  the  furrow,  the  other  on  the 
unplowed  land.  These  wheels  hold  the  beam  rigidly 
in  place,  and  thus  the  plow  runs  well ;  a  boy  can  man- 


40  ALFALFA    FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

age  it  if  the  thing  is  set  right.  We  keep  the  plows 
sharp.  The  plowman  carries  a  file  and  often  lifts 
the  plow  out  of  the  ground  and  sharpens  it  well. 
The  land  is  plowed  deep,  from  7  to  10",  and  we  hope 
ultimately  to  plow  much  deeper  than  that.  We  aim 
to  get  the  land  all  broken  before  mid-winter,  so  that 
the  frosts  may  work  on  it.  No  manure  is  used  on 
alfalfa  sod.  It  is  disked  and  fitted  for  corn  which  is 
planted  usually  about  May  5  in  checks.  This  corn  is 
as  well  cultivated  as  we  know.  Often  in  the  early 
part  of  the  season  the  alfalfa  roots  will  grow,  espe- 
cially if  the  season  is  wet,  and  the  field  will  look 
not  a  little  green.  This  does  not  disturb  us  in  the 
least,  for  after  the  corn  cultivation  begins  the  alfalfa 
soon  weakens  and  mostly  disappears.  Some  stray 
plants  will  escape  destruction  and  will  live  over, 
even  for  two*  or  three  years  of  corn.  This  is  all  the 
better,  since  thus  the  inoculation  is  safely  carried 
over.  The  corn  has  as  clean  cultivation  as  we  can 
give.  We  discourage  weed  seeding  as  much  as  pos- 
sible. We  have  learned  that  that  enemy  of  alfalfa, 
fox-tail  or  pigeon  grass,  can  be  surely  eradicated  in 
one  year  by  not  letting  a  stalk  of  it  make  seed. 

The  corn  is  cut  and  shocked.  Before  winter  it  is 
husked  and  the  folder  set  up,  two  shocks  in  a  place. 
We  cut  our  corn  12  hills  square ;  at  present  our  hills 
are  42"  apart.  We  find  corn  to  thrive  wonderfully 
on  alfalfa  sod.  The  second  year  will  usually  find  this 
land  yet  in  corn.  This  time  as  much  manure  from 
the  stables  and  sheep  barns  as  can  be  found 
will  be  put  on.  Even  with  this  manuring 


INTRODUCTION.  41 

we  do  not  expect  quite  so  good  corn  as 
we  had  when  we  grew  it  on  alfalfa  sod.  As 
before,  clean  cultivation  is  given.  We  are  especially 
careful  to  destroy  all  fox-tail  grass  before  it  seeds. 

This  land  is  now  to  be  sown  to  alfalfa.  If  it  needs 
lime  that  is  applied  as  convenience  suggests,  when- 
ever the  teams  are  idle  and  the  land  is  hard  enough 
to  drive  on.  We  use  finely  ground  raw  limestone 
rock,  not  burned.  We  use  about  4  tons  to  the  acre 
of  this.  It  cost  us  only  $1.25  per  ton  on  cars.  The 
land  is  plowed  as  deep  as  the  plows  will  run,  making 
the  furrows  narrow.  We  would  plow  24"  deep  if  we 
could  do  so.  Some  day  no  doubt  we  will  begin  sub- 
soil work,  and  expect  that  to  pay  well.  We  like  to 
do  this  plowing  a  month  or  more  before  time  to  seed 
alfalfa,  so  that  the  earth  may  settle  well  together 
again.  In  April  we  disk  and  prepare  the  land  with 
some  care,  but  not  attempting  to  make  any  "ash 
heap"  or  "onion  bed,"  as  some  advise,  only  a  little 
better  seedbed  than  one  would  make  for  corn. 
About  April  10  we  begin  drilling.  We  use  a  fertil- 
izer drill  that  sows  fertilizer,  beardless  spring 
barley  and  alfalfa  seed.  Of  barley  we  sow  2  bushels 
to  the  acre;  of  alfalfa  seed,  15  to  20  Ibs.;  of  fertilizer 
(usually  plain  acid  phosphate,  sometimes  bone  meal) 
we  use  300  to  500  Ibs.  per  acre.  We  think  it  prob- 
able that  the  more  we  enrich  the  land  the  greater  our 
profit  is.  We  let  the  alfalfa  seed  fall  in  front  of  the 
drill  sometimes,  at  other  times  behind  the  drill,  ac- 
cording to  the  condition  of  the  soil.  If  moist  we  do 
not  roll  but  follow  the  drill  with  a  plank  drag.  If 


42  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

the  land  is  dry  and  cloddy  we  use  a  roller  to  com- 
pact it  and  to  leave  the  surface  smooth  so  that  the 
mower  may  run  over  it  readily.  We  do  not  inocu- 
late, since  all  the  farm  is  now  filled  with  alfalfa  bac- 
teria. The  alfalfa  comes  up  with  the  barley  and  all 
grow  together  till  the  barley  has  come  into  head; 
before  grain  has  formed  in  the  heads  it  is  mown  off 
and  all  made  into  hay.  Barley  hay  is  exceedingly 
good  hay,  though  not  so  good  as  alfalfa  hay,  of 
course.  After  this  cutting  the  alfalfa  comes  on  rap- 
idly and  in  about  45  days,  or  a  little  less,  it  also  is 
cut  and  a  crop  of  hay  taken  off . 

We  judge  of  the  time  to  cut  this  young  alfalfa  al- 
together by  the  condition  of  the  growth,  not  by  the 
bloom.  When  small  shoots  appear  at  the  base  of  the 
stems,  down  by  the  ground,  as  though  it  was  ready 
to  make  a  new  growth,  then  it  is  to  be  cut,  and  not 
before  that  time.  If  cut  before  these  shoots  or  buds 
appear,  the  alfalfa  is  very  greatly  weakened  and 
sometimes  is  destroyed.  After  this  cutting  the  alfal- 
fa is  left  religiously  alone;  it  is  never  pastured  nor 
mown  nor  tramped  in  any  way  during  the  fall  or  win- 
ter. The  fall  growth  of  about  a  foot  or  a  little  more 
is  worth  a  very  great  deal  to  the  plant,  in  some  way 
or  another ;  it  helps  hold  the  snow  and  makes  it  win- 
ter better.  Tne  next  year  the  alfalfa  shoots  out  as 
soon  as  the  frost  is  out  of  the  earth. 

Alfalfa  fields  are  sacred  ground  on  Woodland 
Farm,  and  never  unless  by  accident  is  an  animal  per- 
mitted to  tread  upon  them.  It  is  especially  im- 
portant that  no  stock  go  upon  them  in  the  spring 


INTRODUCTION.  43 

when  the  young  alfalfa  is  pushing  up ;  even  though 
the  alfalfa  might  be  destined  for  pasture  everything 
is  kept  off  until  it  has  made  good  growth,  and  is 
nearly  knee  high  and  almost  come  into  bloom  before 
stock  is  turned  in.  Gloriously  beautiful  the  fields  be- 
come in  May,  and  as  June  draws  near  we  watch  them 
to  see  how  nearly  they  are  approaching  harvest. 
We  have  long  ago  learned  not  to  regard  the  bloom- 
ing of  the  alfalfa  as  -being  an  essential  indication  of 
maturity,  but  only  we  suspect  that  it  is  ready  for 
cutting.  We  get  down  upon  our  knees  in  the  field, 
and  parting  the  stems  look  to  see  whether  small  buds 
have  appeared  at  the  surface  of  the  ground.  If 
these  buds  or  shoots  are  pushing  out,  showing  that 
the  plant  is  ready  to  make  new  growth,  then  the 
mowers  come  out,  three  of  them,  each  cutting  swaths 
6'  wide,  and  with  merry  rattle  the  beautiful  green 
forage  is  laid  low. 

Not  much  use  is  made  of  the  tedder  on  Woodland 
Farm,  since  it  shatters  off  the  leaves  too  much,  al- 
though sometimes  it  is  employed  when  the  crop  is 
very  succulent  and  heavy.  Before  the  alfalfa  is  dry 
enough  for  the  leaves  to  shed  off,  the  rake  is  started 
and  the  hay  gathered  into  small  windrows,  which 
are  then  piled  into  slender  but  fairly  tall  cocks  by 
the  use  of  the  hand  fork  in  the  old-fashioned  way. 
Rather  a  jolly  time  haymaking  is,  with  all  the  men 
and  boys  on  the  place  busy  in  the  field,  with  merry 
callings  to  and  fro  and  sometimes  the  note  of  a  song, 
yet  it  is  a  busy  place  too.  Seldom  can  the  hay  be 
drawn  in  the  same  day  as  it  is  cut  down,  and  not  al- 


44  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN  AMERICA. 

ways  on  the  next  day,  but  as  soon  as  it  is  dried  it  is 
placed  on  broad,  low-platform  wagons,  each  bed  16' 
long  and  7'  wide,  with  tight  board  floors ;  and  taken 
to  the  barn  where  it  is  unloaded  by  horse  forks.  The 
farm  possesses  7  of  these  wagons,  so  that  each  even- 
ing it  is  the  daily  duty  to  load  up  the  7  wagons  with 
from  10  to  14  tons  of  hay,  which  are  then  drawn  un- 
der shed  ready  to  be  unloaded  in  the  morning.  Not 
much  is  doing  in  "the  alfalfa  meadows  in  the  fore- 
noon; then  is  the  time  chosen  for  work  in  the  corn 
fields,  and  cultivators  are  pushed  steadily.  These 
two  crops,  corn  and  alfalfa,  constitute  almost  all  that 
is  grown  on  Woodland  Farm,  excepting  a  few  acres 
of  soy  beans  and  the  blue  grass  pastures,  but  as  the 
alfalfa  is  cut  three  times  during  the  season,  and  the 
corn  cultivated  at  least  five  times,  there  is  no  dif- 
ficulty in  keeping  everyone  busy. 

The  writer  makes  no  apology  for  having  devoted 
so  much  time  to  the  operations  on  Woodland  Farm, 
since  he  feels  that  in  a  sense  this  is  a  pioneer  farm, 
and  fairly  prophetic  only,  of  what  will  be  very  com- 
mon throughout  all  the  region  of  the  corn  belt.  Very 
certainly  these  two  crops,  corn  and  alfalfa,  are  by 
far  the  most  profitable  of  any,  and  do  most  conserve 
the  fertility  of  the  soil,  do  best  nourish  all  manner  of 
farm  animals,  do  most  surely  build  the  fortunes  of 
the  farmer.  Deeply  buried  in  the  soil  of  the  fields, 
the  alfalfa  roots  know  nothing  of  the  vicissitudes  of 
winter;  as  certainly  they  put  out  green  as  leaves  up- 
on the  oaks  in  spring,  and  drouths  that  wither  up 
ordinary  meadows  have  little  effect  upon  them. 


INTRODUCTION.  45 

Wheat,  oats,  potatoes,  timothy  grass  and  a  hundred 
other  things  are  uncertain,  affected  vastly  by  the 
vicissitudes  of  the  weather.  Alfalfa  once  rooted  in 
dry  rich  soil  has  the  permanence  of  the  wild  native 
things.  Corn  also  planted  upon  alfalfa  sod  well  cul- 
tivated mocks  at  seasons,  for  floods  affect  it  not, 
since  the  land  must  perforce  be  well  drained,  and 
drouths  and  heats  that  sear  other  vegetation  pass  it 
by,  leaving  it  fresh,  green  and  undismayed.  These 
two  crops  then  are  destined  not  to  free  the  farmer 
from  labor,  for  they  bring  abundant  labor  to  him, 
but  to  take  away  from  him  the  cares  and  perplexi- 
ties incident  to  the  growing  of  uncertain  things. 


HISTORY. 

The  world  is  very  old.  For  more  ages  than  we 
dream  men  have  lived  and  loved,  toiled,  sown  and 
reaped.  The  history  of  the  race  is  written  in  the 
form,  variation  and  characteristics  of  animals  and 
plants  much  more  than  in  tablets  of  stone  or  pieces 
of  clay.  Would  you  ask  how  long  men  have  lived 
on  earth?  Ask  when  first  hornless  cattle  were  kept. 
Records  in  Egypt  show  them  to  have  been  common 
thousands  of  years  before  the  time  of  Christ. 
Ask  when  sheep  were  first  tamed  and  their  fleeces 
developed.  The  very  race  of  wild  sheep  has  per- 
ished from  the  face  of  the  earth  and  the  sheep  of 
Abraham's  day  were  highly  developed.  Ask  when 
wheat  was  taken  from  being  a  wild  grass  and  made 
a  cultivated  plant;  when  the  banana  ceased  to  have 
seeds;  the  apple  gathered  sweetness  and  the  vine 
began  to  hang  down  with  luscious  clusters  of  pur- 
pling grapes.  Ask,  too,  when  it  was  that  animals 
became  the  subjects  and  friends  of  men;  when  men 
began  to  feed  them,  to  gather  forage  for  them,  to 
cultivate  plants  for  them,  to  perceive  which  plants 
were  the  best  plants  and  which  best  fed  the  animals. 
Ask,  too,  when  men  first  saw  that  soils  grew  worn, 
that  certain  plants  fed  soils,  that  other  plants  caused 
them  to  become  infertile. 

(46) 


HISTORY.  47 

All  these  things  happened  many  thousands  of 
years  ago.  The  best  things  done  by  men  are  older 
than  recorded  history.  The  taming  of  the  ass,  the 
taming  of  the  horse,  the  taming  of  the  cow,  the  devel- 
opment of  the  milk-giving  powers  of  the  cow,  the 
caring  for  sheep  and  goats,  the  breeding  of  sheep  for 
wool,  the  spinning  of  wool  and  flax,  the  melting  of 
ores — all  these  primal  things  happened  long 
centuries  ago.  Since  historic  times  man  has 
learned  very  little  indeed  that  'he  needed  to 
know;  the  important,  primal,  essential  things  were 
all  worked  out  before  men  began  to  write  upon  stone 
and  upon  parchment. 

It  is  not  certain  that  there  exists  today  any  wild  al- 
falfa. There  are  places  where  some  has  escaped  from 
cultivation  and  gone  wild,  but  all  alfalfa,  so  far  as 
known,  has  so  changed  its  form  from  'what  it  would 
be  in  the  wild  state  that  it  is  doubtless  bearing  in  its 
nature  the  very  marked  signs  of  the  moulding  hand 
of  man.  For  example,  all  alfalfa  so  far  as  known 
today  needs  to  be  cut  off  from  time  to  4ime  to  keep 
it  in  thrift.  No  wild  plant  requires  that.  Alfalfa 
that  we  know  reflects  a  long  line  of  civilizations,  re- 
flects the  habits  of  people  who  have  kept  cows  and 
donkeys  and  sheep  and  horses,  kept  these  and  fed 
them,  carrying  their  forage  to  them  on  men's  backs 
for  ages  untold.  It  requires  no  effort  of  the  imag- 
ination when  looking  out  upon  an  alfalfa  field  to 
picture  the  fields  from  which  it  sprung  through  the 
ages  past.  The  little  fields  fair  and  green  and  fertile 
under  hot  glowing  desert  skies  mostly.  Little  fields 


48  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

for  the  most  part  walled  often  with  walls  of  stone 
or  of  sun-dried  bricks,  lined  with  little  canals  of 
cool  water  with  overhanging  trees,  fig  trees  or  al- 
monds or  palms,  and  brown  men  and  women,  lithe 
and  strong,  coming  to  cut  the  green  meadow  with 
curved  sickles  and  scythes,  gathering  it  in  sheaves 
and  carrying  it  on  their  backs  through  gates  in  the 
walls  to  the  animals  eagerly  awaiting  it  in  the  en- 
closed corrals  or  stables.  Alfalfa  was  developed  in 
dry  regions.  It  came,  very  likely,  from  southwest- 
ern Asia  through  Persia  to  Arabia,  whence  it  got  its 
name  alfalfa,  which  simply  means  the  best  forage. 
The  Persians  grew  it  finely.  Down  along  the  rivers 
of  Babylon  in  ancient  Babylonia  alfalfa  was  a  stand- 
ard crop,  most  likely.  Tho-se  river  valleys  are  rich 
in  lime  and  alkaline  in  their  reaction,  admirably 
suited  to  alfalfa  culture,  and  there  under  irrigation 
alfalfa  undoubtedly  throve.  The  one  reference  to 
alfalfa  in  the  Bible  is  found  in  the  fourth  chapter 
of  the  book  of  Daniel  where  in  the  thirty-third  verse 
it  is  related  of  the  king : 

"The  same  hour  was  the  thing  fulfilled  upon  Nebuchadnezzar: 
and  he  was  driven  from  men,  and  did  eat  grass  [alfalfa]  as 
oxen,  and  his  body  was  wet  with  the  dew  of  heaven  till  his 
hairs  were  grown  like  eagle's  feathers  and  his  nails  like  bird's 
claws.  And  at  the  end  of  the  days,  I  Nebuchadnezzar  lifted  up 
mine  eyes  unto  heaven,  and  mine  understanding  returned  to  me, 
and  I  blessed  the  Most  High,  and  I  praised  and  honored  Him  that 
liveth  forever,  whose  dominion  is  an  everlasting  dominion,  and 
His  kingdom  is  from  generation  to  generation." 

The  truth  probably  was  that  old  Nebuchadnezzar, 
rich,  spoiled,  feasted  and  wined  till  he  became  in- 
sane, was  turned  out  to  graze  in  an  alfalfa  field  till 
on  this  simple  and  nutritious  diet  his  body  was  re- 


HISTORY.  49 

newed,  filled  with  health  and  vigor,  when  his  reason 
returned  and  of  course  he  did  what  any  healthy  man 
will  do  daily,  blessed  the  Most  High  and  praised 
Him  and  was  humbled  and  glad  once  more. 

It  is  related  that  in  the  old  kingdom  of  Babylonia 
wheat  would  yield  200  fold  and  sometimes  300  fold, 
which  plainly  indicates  that  it  must  have  been  sown 
thinly  in  drills  upon  alfalfa  sod,  irrigated  from  the 
canals  with  which  that  country  abounded,  and  prob- 
ably weeded  and  cultivated  by  slave  labor. 

About  500  years  before  Christ  the  Persians  invad- 
ed Greece.  Now,  Greeks  are  stubborn  folks,  or  were 
in  those  days,  and  many  were  the  battles  before  the 
Greeks  were  even  in  part  conquered.  The  Persians, 
aided  by  Greek  factions  and  tribes,  doggedly  toiled 
steadily  onward,  taking  city  after  city.  Wherever 
they  went  they  had  chariot  horses  to  feed  and  cattle 
— bulls,  so  legend  says — for  fighting,  and  cows  no 
doubt  for  helping  feed  the  army.  With  curious  mix- 
ture of  martial  and  agricultural  zeal  they  brought 
with  them  alfalfa  seed  and  wherever  they  conquered 
foothold  they  sowed  alfalfa.  An  army  travels,  and 
fights,  on  its  belly,  so  it  was  a  mighty  help  to  the 
Greeks  to  have  the  aid  of  the  alfalfa.  And  without 
doubt  it  was  eaten  by  the  soldiers  as  well,  since  green 
succulent  alfalfa  has  always  been  boiled  and  eaten 
as  greens  or  pottage.  Unhappily  the  Persians 
§ent  away  hosts  of  the  Greek  subjects  as  slaves  to 
Asia,  else  when  they  had  gone  on  the  people  might 
have  been  almost  benefited  by  the  war,  since  alfalfa 
fields  were  left  in  the  wake  of  the  army.  It  must  be 


50  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

remembered  that  much  of  the  land  of  Greece  is 
formed  from  the  decay  of  limestone  and  marble. 
Thus  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime  it  is  naturally 
fitted  for  alfalfa  culture  as  well  as  for  the  production 
of  such  magnificent  men  as  the  Greeks  undoubtedly 
were. 

From  Greece  alfalfa  spread  into  Borne,  just  when 
we  do  not  know.  The  first  real  farm  books  were 
written  in  the  first  century  after  Christ.  One  L, 
Junius  Moderatus  Columella,  born  in  Spain  but  liv- 
ing most  of  his  life  in  Italy,  wrote  twelve  books 
which  he  called  "De  Ee  Kustica."  These  books 
were  written  about  the  year  56  A.  D.  It  would  seem 
from  dipping  into  the  pages  of  Columella  that  about 
as  much  was  known  then  of  agriculture  as  is  known 
today.  Indeed,  they  knew  then  many  things  that 
we  do  not  know  today,  and  agriculture  has  lost  many 
picturesque  details  by  the  pruning  away  little  by 
little  of  agricultural  fancies,  by  the  accumulations  of 
stern  facts. 

But  however  much  we  may  smile  at  some  of  Col- 
umella 's  account  of  ancient  Eoman  agriculture,  we 
will  respect  him  for  his  account  of  alfalfa  and  the 
way  to  grow  it.  Many  forage  crops  are  mentioned 
by  Columella — medic  (alfalfa),  vetches,  bitter  vetch, 
chick  pea,  barley,  oats  and  wheat. 

Speaking  of  the  various  sorts  of  fodders  he  says 
the  herb  medic  (alfalfa)  is  the  choicest,  because 
when  it  is  sown  it  lasts  ten  years.  He  continues : 

It  can  bear  to  be  cut  down  four  times,  sometimes  also  six  times 
in  a  year,  because  it  dungs  the  laaa,   AH  emaciated  cattle  what- 


HISTORY.  51 

soever  grow  fat  with  it  because  it  is  a  remedy  for  sick  cattle, 
and  a  jugerum  of  it  is  abundantly  sufficient  for  three  horses  the 
whole  year.  It  is  sown  as  we  shall  hereafter  direct.  About  the 
beginning  of  October  cut  up  the  field  wherein  you  design  to  sow 
medic  next  spring  and  let  it  lie  all  winter  to  rot  and  grow  crum- 
bly. Then  about  the  first  of  February  plow  it  carefully  a  second 
time  and  carry  all  the  stones  out  of  it,  and  break  all  clods.  After 
about  the  month  of  March  plow  it  the  third  time  and  harrow  it. 
When  you  have  thus  manured  the  ground,  make  it  in  the  manner 
of  a  garden,  into  beds  and  divisions  ten  feet  broad  and  fifty  feet 
long,  so  that  it  may  be  supplied  by  water  with  paths  and  there 
may  be  an  open  access  for  weeders  on  both  sides.  Then  throw 
old  dung  upon  it  and  sow  in  the  latter  end  of  April.  Sow  it  in 
such  a  proportion  that  a  cyathus  of  seed  may  take  up  a  place  10 
feet  long  and  5  feet  bread.  After  you  have  done  this,  let  the 
seeds  that  are  thrown  into  the  ground  be  presently  covered  with 
earth  with  wooden  rakes.  This  is  a  very  great  advantage  to  them 
because  they  are  very  quickly  burnt  up  with  the  sun.  After 
sowing,  the  place  ought  not  to  be  touched  with  an  iron  tool,  but 
as  I  said  it  must  be  raked  with  wooden  rakes,  and  weeded  from 
time  to  time  lest  any  other  kind  of  herb  destroy  the  f3eble  medic. 
You  must  cut  the  first  crop  of  it  somewhat  later,  after  it  has  put 
forth  some  of  its  seeds.  Afterwards  you  are  at  liberty  to  cut  it 
down  as  tender  and  as  young  as  you  please  after  it  has  sprung  up 
and  to  give  it  to  horses,  but  at  first  you  must  give  it  to  them 
more  sparingly  until  they  be  accustomed  to  it,  lest  the  novelty 
of  the  fodder  be  hurtful  to  them,  for  it  blows  them  and  creates 
much  blood.  Water  it  very  often  after  you  have  cut  it.  Then 
after  a  few  days  when  it  shall  begin  to  sprout  weed  out  of  it  all 
plants  of  a  different  kind.  When  cultivated  in  this  manner  it 
may  be  cut  down  six  times  in  a  year  and  it  will  last  ten  years. 

That  instruction  bears  evidence  of  much  famil- 
iarity with  the  alfalfa  plant.  It  must  not  be  cut  too 
soon  the  first  time,  not  till  some  seeds  have  formed. 
It  is  true  here  that  young  alfalfa  is  destroyed  often- 
times if  cut  before  the  young  shoots  have  put  out 
at  the  base  of  the  stems.  Not  having  observed  this 
perhaps  the  old  alfalfa  growers  judged  by  the  state 
of  bloom  or  seeding  when  it  should  be  cut.  Note  that 
Columella  says  "it  dungs  the  land."  Thus  early 
they  knew  the  practice  of  farming  with  legumes, 


52  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

and  that  alfalfa  was  the  best  of  the  legumes  for  this 
purpose  of  enriching  soils. 

Note  too  that  he  found  it  a  good  food  for  horses. 
It  is  said  that  the  chariot  horses  were  fed  on  alfalfa 
hay,  and  the  colts  destined  to  become  war  horses 
were  raised  largely  on  it  because  it  made  them 
larger,  heavier  and  more  impetuous. 

From  Italy  alfalfa  naturally  spread  wherever  the 
Roman  farmer  colonist  penetrated,  through  France, 
Spain,  England  and  doubtless  Germany.  It  may  be 
that  Spain  also  received  alfalfa  from  Africa  through 
the  Moors.  The  name  alfalfa  comes  from  the  Ara- 
bic and  means  the  best  forage,  and  this  name  the 
Spanish  people  adopted.  Through  the  introduction 
of  the  plant  in  America  by  the  Spanish  colonists 
and  our  taking  it  from  them  on  our  Pacific  coast  we 
get  the  name  alfalfa.  In  France,  England  and  most 
other  European  countries,  and  in  Utah  and  formerly 
through  all  our  eastern  states,  the  name  lucerne  is 
in  common  use.  This  name  comes  from  a  river  val- 
ley in  northern  Italy. 

Alfalfa  throve  in  Italy,  in  much  of  Spain  and  in 
parts  of  France.  Where  it  throve  no  other  forage 
plant  could  compete  with  it.  It  was  introduced  long 
ago  into  England  and  there  it  throve  in  spots.  It 
was  much  extolled  by  some,  its  planting  advised, 
yet  it  never  became  common  and  today  is  seldom 
seen  in  extensive  use  on  the  British  Isles.  It  was 
brought  to  America  in  two  ways,  from  Spain  to 
Mexico,  Peru,  Chili,  Argentina,  from  Mexico  to 
Texas,  New  Mexico  and  California ;  later  from  Chili 


HISTORY.  53 

to  California  in  1851,  which  marked  the  really  im- 
portant step  in  alfalfa  growing  in  America. 

The  other  source  was  the  bringing  of  lucerne  seed 
to  the  eastern  states  of  America  from  England, 
France  and  Germany  early  in  the  history  of  Ameri- 
can colonization.  In  the  eighteenth  century  many 
men  were  experimenting  with  lucerne  in  Virginia, 
New  York,  North  Carolina  and  doubtless  other 
states.  Some  of  them  succeeded  quite  well  and 
many  of  them  doubtless  failed.  We  know  now  the 
reason  why  many  failed.  Then  the  behavior  of  lu- 
cerne was  a  mystery  to  the  farmer.  We  had  not 
learned  then  the  intimate  connection  between  alka- 
linity of  soil  and  presence  of  abundant  carbonate  of 
lime  and  alfalfa  culture.  It  is  all  very  easy  to  ex- 
plain this  now — how  alfalfa  came  from  alkaline  soils 
rich  in  lime  down  in  Persia,  into  the  alkaline  plains 
of  Babylonia,  to  the  limestone  soils  of  Eoman  lands, 
to  the  soils  of  Greece  built  on  marble  decay,  to  the 
limestones  of  southern  France,  to  the  alkaline  soils 
of  semi-arid  north  Africa,  to  the  soils  rich  in  lime 
and  alkalies  in  Spain,  thence  to  similar  soils,  yet 
richer  in  lime,  in  Mexico,  Chili,  New  Mexico  and  Cal- 
ifornia. In  England  soils  vary  immensely  as  regard 
their  lime  content.  Some  are  very  rich  in  lime ;  on 
these  lucerne  throve :  in  others  lime  is  very  deficient ; 
here  it  failed.  In  France  there  is  found  a  similar 
variability,  so  also  there  were  found  areas  that  grew 
good  lucerne,  and  others  that  grew  none  at  all.  In 
eastern  America,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly  all  soils 
were  from  the  first  settling  of  the  country  deficient 


54  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

in  lime  and  thus  unfitted  for  alfalfa.  Yet  the  soils 
as  our  fathers  found  them  were  sweeter  than  they 
are  today,  and  thus  we  often  hear  old  men  relate 
that  in  their  boyhood  their  fathers  grew  lucerne  and 
that  their  daily  task  was  to  cut  it  and  feed  it  to  the 
cows ;  this  on  land  that  will  not  today  unaided  grow 
alfalfa  at  all. 

In  reading  over  the  written  accounts  of  how  to 
grow  lucerne  published  in  the  last  century  one  is 
amazed  to  find  how  much  the  authors  knew  of  the 
habits  of  the  plants,  and  as  much  astonished  to  per- 
ceive that  few  if  any  of  them  understood  the  vital 
connection  between  alfalfa  and  a  large  percentage 
of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil.  One  of  the  good  old 
books  on  agriculture  is  "The  Dictionary  of  the 
Farm,"  by  the  Eev.  W.  L.  Kham,  Vicar  of  Wink- 
field,  Berkshire,  who  died  in  1843.  The  article  on 
lucerne  is  strikingly  good,  so  good,  indeed,  that  had 
the  author  known  two  facts  of  which  he  seems  to 
have  been  unaware  there  would  have  been  left  little 
to  add.  He  evidently  had  not  traced  the  relationship 
between  thrifty  lucerne  and  a  strong  lime  content  in 
the  soil,  nor  had  he  seen  the  harm  that  comes  to 
lucerne  when  it  is  mown  off  too  early,  before  it  has 
made  sufficient  growth  to  start  the  little  shoots  at 
the  base  of  the  stems.  Ignorance  of  the  latter  fact 
is  very  universal  in  England  at  the  present  time  and 
leads  to  much  lack  of  thrift  and  falling  away  of  the 
alfalfa  plants  that  are  usually  cut  with  the  scythe 
bit  by  bit,  and  fed  to  horses  green,  just  as  Kham 
advised,  The  writer  has  indeed  pointed  out  to  Eng- 


HISTORY.  55 

lish  farmers  that  the  lower  sides  of  their  lucerne 
fields  remained  thrifty  after  the  upper  ends  were 
half  destroyed,  just  because  of  the  fact  that  the  man 
with  the  scythe  commenced  on  the  upper  end  before 
it  was  time  to  cut  the  immature  plants,  and  by  the 
time  he  had  reached  the  bottom  of  the  field  it  was 
sufficiently  mature,  so  remained  in  vigorous  condi- 
tion. 

The  article  follows  from  "Bham's  Dictionary  of 
the  Farm,"  published  in  1853: 

Loicerne  is  a  plant  which  will  not  bear  extreme  frost  nor  super 
abundant  moisture,  and  its  cultivation  is  therefore  restricted  to 
mild  climates  and  dry  soils;  but  where  it  thrives  its  growth  is  so 
rapid  and  luxuriant  that  no  other  known  plant  can  be  compared  to 
it.  In  good  deep  loams  lucerne  is  the  most  profitable  of  all  green 
crops;  when  properly  managed  the  quantity  of  cattle  which  can 
be  kept  in  good  condition  on  an  acre  of  lucerne  during  the  whole 
season  exceeds  belief.  It  is  no  sooner  mown  than  it  pushes  out 
fresh  shoots,  and  wonderful  as  the  growth  of  clover  sometimes 
is  in  a  field  which  has  been  lately  mown,  that  of  lucerne  is  far 
more  rapid.  Where  a  few  tufts  of  lucerne  happen  to  be,  they 
will  rise  a  foot  above  the  surface,  while  the  grass  and  clover 
which  were  mown  at  the  same  time  are  only  a  very  few  inches 
high. 

Lucerne,  sown  in  a  soil  suited  to  it,  will  last  for  many  years, 
shooting  its  roots  downwards  for  nourishment  till  they  are  alto- 
gether out  of  the  reach  of  drouth.  In  the  driest  and  most  sultry 
weather,  when  every  blade  of  grass  droops  for  want  of  moisture, 
lucerne  holds  up  its  stem,  fresh  and  green  as  in  a  genial  spring 
The  only  enemies  of  this  plant  are  a  wet  subsoil  and  a  foul  sui 
face.  The  first  is  often  incurable;  the  latter  can  be  avoided  by 
good  cultivation. 

It  is  useless  to  sow  lucerne  on  very  poor  sands  or  gravel  or  on 
wet  clays.  The  best  and  deepest  loam  must  be  chosen,  rather 
light  than  heavy  but  with  a  good  portion  of  vegetable  earth  or 
humus  equally  dispersed  through  it.  If  the  ground  has  been 
trenched,  so  much  the  better;  and  if  the  surface  is  covered  with 
some  inferior  earth  from  the  subsoil  it  will  be  no  detriment  to 
the  crop,  for  it  will  prevent  grass  and  weeds  from  springing  up 
ami  gaye,  much  weeding,  The  lucerne  will  sopn  strike,  down  bfr 


56  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

low  it.  It  is  not  a  bad  practice  to  cover  the  lucerne  field  witn  a 
coat  of  coal  ashes  or  poor  sand,  merely  to  keep  down  the  weeds, 
where  this  can  easily  be  done. 

The  soil  in  which  it  is  intended  to  sow  lucerne  seed  should  be 
well  prepared.  It  should  be  highly  manured  for  the  two  or  three 
preceding  crops  and  deeply  ploughed,  if  not  trenched.  It  should 
be  perfectly  clean,  and  for  this  purpose  two  successive  crops  of 
turnips  are  most  effectual.  The  turnips  should  be  fed  off  with 
sheep.  In  the  month  of  K&rch,  the  land  having  been  ploughed 
flat  and  well  harrowed,  a  very  small  quantity  of  barley,  not  above 
a  bushel  to  the  acre,  may  be  sown,  or  rather  drilled  on  the 
ground,  and  at  the  same  time  from  30  to  40  Ibs.  of  lucerne  seed 
sown  broadcast  and  both  harrowed  in  and  lightly  rolled.  If 
the  land  will  not  bear  to  be  laid  flat  without  water-furrows,  it 
will  be  useless  to  sow  lucerne  in  it. 

As  the  crop  comes  up  it  must  be  carefully  weeded:  no  expense 
must  be  spared  to  do  this  effectually,  for  success  depends  upon 
it.  When  the  barley  is  reaped,  the  stubble,  which  will  probably 
be  strong,  should  be  pulled  up  by  tne  hand  hoe,  or  by  harrowing, 
if  the  plants  of  lucerne  be  strong,  and  at  all  events  the  ground 
must  be  cleared  of  weeds.  It  must  not  be  fed  off  with  sheep; 
they  would  bite  too  near  the  crown.  Lucerne  should  always  be 
cut  as  soon  as  the  flower  is  formed.  If  it  is  kept  clear  of  weeds 
the  first  year,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  with  it  afterwards, 
when  the  roots  have  become  strong.  The  second  year  the  lucerne 
will  be  fit  to  cut  very  early,  and  in  a  favorable  season  it  may  be 
cut  four  or  five  times.  After  each  cutting  it  is  useful  to  draw  heavy 
harrows  over  the  land,  or  an  instrument  made  on  purpose  resem- 
bling harrow  teeth,  the  teeth  of  which  are  flat,  and  cutting  the 
soil  like  coulters.  It  will  not  injure  the  plants,  even  if  it  divide 
the  crown  of  the  root,  but  it  will  destroy  grass  and  weeds.  Liquid 
manure,  which  consists  of  the  urine  of  cattle  and  drainings  of 
dunghills,  is  often  spread  over  the  lucerne  immediately  after 
it  has  been  mown,  and  much  invigorates  the  next  growth;  but  if 
the  land  is  rich  to  a  good  depth  this  is  scarcely  necessary.  The 
lucerne  will  grow  and  thrive  from  seven  to  twelve  years,  when 
it  will  begin  to  wear  out,  and,  in  spite  of  weeding,  the  grass  will 
get  the  upper  hand  of  it.  It  should  then  be  plowed  up,  all  the 
roots  carefully  collected  and  laid  in  a  heap  with  dung  and  lime 
to  rot,  and  a  course  of  regular  tillage  should  succeed.  The  same 
land  should  not  be  sown  with  lucerne'  again  in  less  than  ten  or 
twelve  years,  after  a  regular  course  of  cropping  and  manuring. 

Cattle  fed  upon  lucerne  thrive  better  than  on  any  other  green 
food.  Horses  in  particular  can  work  hard  upon  it  without  any 
corn,  provided  it  be  slow  work.  Cows  give  plenty  of  good  milk 


HISTORY.  57 

when  fed  with  it.  In  spring  it  is  apt  to  purge  cattle,  which  with 
a  little  attention  is  conducive  to  their  health.  If  it  is  given  to 
them  in  too  great  quantities,  or  moist  with  dew,  they  run  the  risk 
of  being  hoven.  These  inconveniences  are  avoided  by  giving  it 
sparingly  at  first,  and  always  keeping  it  twenty-four  hours  after 
it  is  cut,  during  which  time  it  undergoes  an  incipient  fermenta- 
tion, and  the  juice  is  partially  evaporated:  instead  of  being  less 
nutritive  in  this  state,  it  is  rather  more  so. 

An  acre  of  good  lucerne  will  keep  four  or  five  horses  from 
May  to  October,  when  cut  just  as  the  flower  opens.  If  it  should 
get  too  forward,  and  there  be  more  than  the  horses  can  consume, 
it  should  be  made  into  hay;  but  this  is  not  the  most  profitable 
way  of  using  it,  and  the  plant  being  very  succulent,  takes  a  long 
time  in  drying.  The  rain  also  is  very  injurious  to  it  in  a  half 
dry  state;  for  the  stem  is  readily  soaked  with  moisture,  which 
is  slow  in  evaporating.  The  produce  in  hay,  when  well  made,  is 
very  considerable,  being  often  double  the  weight  of  a  good  crop 
of  hay. 

Many  authors  recommend  drilling  the  seed  of  lucerne  in  wide 
rows,  and  hoeing  the  intervals  after  each  cutting.  This  is  the 
best  way  with  a  small  patch  in  a  garden,  and  when  only  a  little 
is  cut  every  day;  but  in  a  field  of  some  extent,  the  lucerne,  when 
once  well  established  and  preserved  free  from  weeds  by  hand 
weeding  the  first  year,  will  keep  all  weeds  down  afterwards,  and 
the  heavy  harrows  with  sharp  tines,  used  immediately  after  mow- 
ing, will  pull  up  all  the  grass  which  may  spring  up.  No  farmer 
ought  to  neglect  having  a  few  acres  in  lucerne  on  his  best  land. 

Note  carefully  that  Rham  says,  "If  the  ground  is 
trenched  so  much  the  better,  and  if  the  surface  is 
covered  with  'some  inferior  earth  from  the  subsoil  it 
will  be  no  detriment  to  the  crop."  The  fact  is  that 
earth  from  the  subsoil  often,  in  fact  usually,  has  in 
it  much  more  lime  than  surface  soil,  so  that  bringing 
it  up  is  sometimes  equivalent  to  a  fairly  good  liming. 

It  is  a  little  difficult  to  explain  the  general  neglect 
of  alfalfa  in  England,  since  there  are  many  soils 
there  admirably  suited  to  it  and  almost  any  of  the 
well-drained  English  soils  would  now  grow  it  well  if 
they  were  well  limed  and  enriched  with  even  bare 


58  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

mineral  fertilizers.  It  may  be  the  uncertain  weather 
of  British  hay-making  times  has  had  a  deterrent 
effect  to  the  alfalfa  growers,  though  it  would  seem 
more  probable  that  the  mere  lack  of  knowledge  of 
the  subject  was  the  main  factor  responsible  for  the 
fewness  of  alfalfa  fields  there.  The  writer  has  seen 
as  thrifty  alfalfa  in  Kent  as  he  has  seen  anywhere 
in  the  world,  and  has  marvelled  at  its  small  extent 
till  he  was  told  that  the  entire  crop  was  fed  green  to 
the  work  horses. 

In  America  a  number  of  men  wrote  enthusiastic- 
ally of  the  lucerne  plant.  It  is  certain  that  George 
Washington  grew  it  at  least  to  some  extent,  and 
Thomas  Jefferson,  on  a  kindlier  soil,  grew  it  so  well 
that  in  one  of  his  letters  he  mentions  the  joy  that 
contemplation  of  his  fields  of  lucerne  gave  him.  To- 
day no  alfalfa  is  grown  on  either  of  these  farms,  nor 
in  their  neighborhood.  Is  it  that  eastern  farms  are 
less  fertile  now,  or  is  it  that  their  owners  are  less 
prudent,  enterprising  and  careful? 

In  New  York  Robert  Livingstone  wrote  of  it  and 
many  men  experimented  with  the  plant,  some  with 
success,  some  without.  In  few  localities  in  the  east- 
ern states,  however,  did  it  gain  a  permanent  foot- 
hold. There  were  several  reasons  for  that.  One 
principal  reason  was  that  alfalfa  does  not  mature 
seed  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  except  during  very 
dry  summers ;  thus  it  was  necessary  to  import  fresh 
seed  from  Europe  constantly  at  considerable  trouble 
and  expense.  Then  the  plant's  nature  was  not  un- 
derstood, its  lime  requirement  was  not  known,  much 


HISTORY.  59 

land  was  badly  drained  and  fields  were  ruined  by 
not  being  c.ut  at  the  proper  time.  Thus  the  enthu- 
siasts gradually  became  discouraged  and  it  became 
a  settled  belief  that  lucerne  could  not  profitably  be 
grown  in  eastern  America  outside  of  a  few  re- 
stricted neighborhoods.  As  indicating  the  sentiment 
of  the  friends  of  alfalfa  in  those  days  we  quote  a 
letter  published  in  the  1 1  American  Farmer ' '  of  1823, 
the  letter  copied  from  the  "New  Brunswick  Times. " 
The  method  of  sowing  advised  is  curious,  to  sow  in 
the  spring  with  fall  rye,  and  there  may  be  a  hint  in 
this  for  others  living  today  in  similar  conditions. 
Note  the  excessive  price  of  the  seed — 50c  per  Jb.,  or 
$30  per  bushel.  The  letter  written  by  "  A  New  Jer- 
sey Farmer ' '  follows : 

It  may  materially  promote  the  interests  of  agriculture  to  offer 
through. the  medium  of  your  paper  a  few  remarks  on  the  culture 
of  lucerne.  This  article  (frequently  denominated  French  clover), 
I  have  found  by  experience  to  be  not  only  one  of  the  most  con- 
venient, but  also  the  most  profitable  of  any  grass  which  can  be 
cultivated.  It  vegetates  quicker  in  the  spring  than  any  other 
grass,  it  resists  the  effects  of  drouths,  it  may  be  cut  four  or  five 
times  in  the  course  of  the  season,  and  it  will  endure  for  at  least 
twelve  years  without  being  renewed.  Of  all  other  grass  it  is  the 
most  profitable  for  soiling.  I  am  fully  of  opinion  that  one  acre 
properly  got  in  would  be  sufficient  to  maintain  six  head  of  cattle, 
from  the  first  of  May  until  November,  for  before  it  can  be  cut 
down  in  this  way,  the  first  part  of  it  will  be  reacry  for  the  scythe. 
English  writers  have  recommended  the  drill  system  for  this  arti- 
cle, but  in  this  climate  I  have  found  this  to  be  entirely  fallacious. 
The  proper  mode  to  be  adopted  is  to  have  your  land  in  good  order, 
to  sow  it  broadcast,  and  to  get  the  seed  in  during  the  month  of 
April  or  May.  The  plan  I  would  recommend  would  be  to  sow 
fall  rye  at  the  rate  of  15  to  20  pounds  to  the  acre  with  it.  The 
effect  of  this  is  that  the  rye  vegetates  quickly,  and  serves  as  a 
nurse  to  the  young  grass  against  the  heat  of  the  scorching  sun, 
and  by  the  time  the  grass  attains  sufficient  strength  to  protect 
itself,  say  in  four  or  five  weeks,  the  rye  withers  and  apparently 


60  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

dies.  In  the  spring,  however,  the  rye  will  again  come  forth 
mixed  with  lucerne,  will  add  much  to  the  quantity  on  the  ground, 
and  prove  a  most  excellent  feed  for  cattle.  The  rye  cut  green  in 
this  way  and  before  getting  into  seed  will  admit  of  being  cut 
two  or  three  times  in  the  course  of  the  season,  with  the  lucerne 
before  it  decays. 

The  kind  of  soil  most  suitable  for  this  culture  is  a  dry  mellow 
loam,  but  a  sandy  or  clay  loam  will  also  answer,  provided  it  is 
not  wet.  In  a  favorable  season,  the  lucerne  may  be  cut  the  next 
fall  after  sowing.  After  the  first  season  you  may  generally  be- 
gin to  cut  green  for  cattle  by  the  first  of  May,  which  saves  your 
young  pasture  and  is  in  every  respect  a  very  great  convenience, 
as  hogs  and  every  description  of  animals  devour  it  with  equal 
avidity.  Backward  as  this  season  has  been,  I  have  been  furnish- 
ing a  copious  supply  every  day  to  seven  cattle,  since  the  5th  of 
May.  The  seed  can  be  procured  at  Thornburn's  or  other  seed 
stores  in  New  York,  at  40  to  50c  per  pound. 

The  following  notes  on  the  culture  of  alfalfa  and 
sainfoin  are  from  a  book  called  " Practical  Farmer" 
published  in  1793  by  John  Spurrier  and  dedicated  to 
Thomas  Jefferson.  Mr.  Spurrier  was  a  transplanted 
English  farmer.  It  is  curious  to  note  how  nearly 
he  came  to  knowing  how  to  grow  each  of  these  crops, 
and  how  vitally  he  failed  to  grasp  the  truth  that 
these  plants  thrive  on  "gravels"  when  these  gravels 
are  composed  of  limestone  pebbles,  not  necessarily 
when  they  do  not!  This  quotation  is  presented 
through  the  courtesy  of  J.  M.  Westgate : 

Saintfoin  took  its  name  from  the  French;  for  the  word  Saint- 
foin,  translated  into  English,  is  Holy-Hay,  which  name  they  gave 
it  from  its  excellent  nutritive  quality. 

There  may  be  more  benefit  reaped  from  this  grass  than  any 
other;  as  you  may  get  a  very  great  crop  in  the  most  dryest  land, 
on  hills,  gravels,  sands,  or  even  barren  ground ;  and  it  will  so 
improve  all  those  lands  in  such  an  extraordinary  manner  that 
they  will  bring  great  crops  of  any  sort  of  grain  after  it. 

The  stalks  of  the  plant  in  poor  land  will  be  two  feet  high,  and 
in  rich  land  it  will  grow  as  high  as  six  feet.  It  has  tufts  of  red 
flowers,  of  three,  four,  or  five  inches  in  length  of  the  honey- 
suckle kind:  they  are  so  beautiful  and  sweet  that  I  have  seen 


HISTORY.  61 

them  much  esteemed  in  a  garden  and  called  the  French  honey- 
suckle. 

This  plant  will  make  twenty  times  the  increase  in  poor  ground 
than  the  common  turf;  and  this  is  owing  to  its  having  a  long 
perpendicular  root  called  tap  roots,  as  well  as  numbers  of  hori- 
zontal ones;  the  perpendicular  ones  sink  to  a  great  depth  to  at- 
tract its  nourishment.  The  length  of  this  root  is  scarce  to  be 
credited  by  any  but  those  who  have  seen  it;  I  have  drawn  it  out 
of  the  ground  near  fourteen  feet;  and  some  have  told  me  that 
they  have  traversed  it  to  double  that  length.  This  is  the  reason 
I  presume  why  this  plant  will  bear  drouth,  when  all  other 
grasses  have  been  burnt  up  by  the  excessive  dryness  of  the  sea- 
son. I  have  at  one  cutting  got  two  tons  of  this  hay  per  acre. 

Cold,  clay,  or  wet  land  is  not  suitable  for  this  grass,  as  it  would 
chill  and  rot  the  roots.  The  long  root  of  Saintfoin  has  near  the 
surface  many  horizontal  roots  issuing  from  it,  which  extend 
themselves  every  way;  there  are  of  the  same  kind  all  the  way 
down,  as  the  roots  go,  but  they  grow  shorter  and  shorter  all  the 
way. 

Any  dry  land  may  be  made  to  produce  this  valuable  and  use- 
ful plant,  though  it  be  ever  so  poor;  but  the  richest  and  best 
land  will  produce  the  greatest  crops  of  it. 

The  best  method  of  sowing  it  is  by  drilling,  but  the  earth  must 
be  very  well  prepared  and  the  seed  well  ordered,  or  else  very 
little  of  it  will  grow.  The  heads  of  these  seeds  are  so  large  and 
their  necks  so  weak,  that  if  they  be  above  an  inch  deep,  they  are 
not  able  to  rise  through  the  incumbent  mould,  and,  if  they  are 
not  covered,  they  will  be  malted;  that  is,  it  will  send  out  its  root 
while  it  lies  above  ground,  and  be  killed  by  the  air. 

The  best  season  for  planting  it  is  the  beginning  of  spring;  and 
it  is  always  strongest  when  planted  alone. 

If  barley,  oats,  or  any  other  grain  sown  with  the  saintfoin, 
happen  to  be  lodged  afterwards,  it  kills  the  young  saintfoin.  The 
quantity  of  seed  to  be  drilled  or  sown  broadcast  upon  an  acre  of 
land  will  depend  wholly  on  the  goodness  of  it;  for  there  is  some 
seed,  of  which  not  one  in  ten  will  strike;  whereas,  in  good  seed, 
not  one  in  twenty  will  fail.  The  method  of  knowing  the  goodness 
is  by  sowing  a  certain  number  of  the  seeds,  and  seeing  how  many 
plants  are  produced  by  them.  If  it  is  above  two  years  old,  it 
will  not  grow.  The  external  signs  of  the  seed  being  good  are 
that  the  husk  is  of  a  bright  color  rather  of  a  purple,  and  the 
kernel  plump,  of  a  light  grey  or  blue  color.  If  the  kernel  be  cut 
across,  and  appear  greenish  and  fresh,  it  is  a  certain  sign  it  is 
good.  If  it  be  of  a  yellowish  color,  and  friable,  and  looks  thin 
and  pitted,  it  is  a  bad  sign.  The  quantity  of  seed  allowed  to  the 


62  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

acre  in  the  drill  way  is  much  less  than  by  sowing  broadcast.  A 
bushel  of  seed  to  an  acre  of  land  is  20  seeds  to  each  square  foot 
of  land  if  sown  broadcast,  which  would  be  sufficient;  but  there 
must  be  an  allowance  made  for  casualties. 

The  quantity  of  good  seed  I  have  found  by  experience  is  for 
sowing  broadcast,  two  bushels,  and  for  drilling,  one  bushel.  And 
as  the  saintfoin  does  not  cover  all  the  ground  the  first  year, 
which  spaces  are  generally  occupied  by  weeds,  to  remedy  this, 
when  I  have  sown  it  broadcast,  I  have  sown  four  or  five  pounds 
of  clover  seed  with  it  to  tlTe  acre,  which  has  answered  a  very 
good  purpose,  as  I  have  then  had  a  crop  the  first  year. 

The  saintfoin  is  but  a  slow  grower  at  first;  the  second  year 
perhaps  will  not  exceed  a  clover  crop,  but  afterwards  it  increases 
every  year  for  six  or  seven  years  before  it  comes  to  its  full  per- 
fection; and  as  that  increases,  the  clover  goes  off,  and  makes  room 
for  it. 

This  valuable  plant  will  keep  in  perfection  for  twenty  years,  if 
you  only  give  it  a  slight  top  dressing  with  soot  or  ashes,  once  in 
four  or  five  years.  The  first  summer,  nor  early  the  next  spring, 
it  should  not  be  fed,  because  it  will  bo  apt  to  bleed  itself  to 
death;  for  the  sweetness  of  it  is  such,  that  it  will  entice  cattle 
to  bite  into  the  knot  in  the  ground  and  spoil  it;  but  afterwards, 
when  it  has  gathered  strength,  the  best  method  will  be  to  mow 
the  first  crop,  and  seed  it  after,  which  is  excellent  for  cows  and 
sheep. 

This  plant,  as  well  as  trefoil,  will  not  thrive  in  a  wet  moist 
soil;  and  as  saintfoin  thrives  best  on  high  grounds,  it  is  a  great 
advantage  in  the  article  of  making  it  into  hay,  as  it  has  greatly 
more  advantage  of  the  sun,  and  less  to  fear  of  mischief  from  wet, 
than  grass  which  grows  in  low  grounds.  On  the  high  grounds, 
the  wind  will  dry  more  in  an  hour  than  it  will  in  meadows  that 
lie  low  in  a  whole  day;  and  often  the  crops  of  saintfoin  make  a 
very  good  hay  in  the  same  seasons  in  which  all  the  grass  hay  is 
spoiled.  The  sun  on  the  high  grounds  has  also  a  more  benign 
influence,  and  sends  off  the  dew  there  two  hours  earlier  in  the 
morning,  and  holds  it  up  as  much  longer  in  the  evening;  by 
these  advantages  the  saintfoin  has  more  time  to  dry,  and  is  made 
with  half  the  expense  of  common  hay. 

Saintfoin  for  hay  should  be  cut  when  it  is  half  blossomed,  and 
managed  the  same  as  before  directed  for  clover.  If  saved  for 
seed,  it  must  be  the  first  cutting.  You  may  know  when  it  is  ripe 
by  the  seeds  coming  out  easily  in  your  hand.  Dry  it  in  the  field, 
and  thresh  it  there  on  a  cloth,  as  it  will  shed  and  you  will  lose 
great  part  of  the  seed  if  you  carry  it  to  the  barn.  The  straw 
will  be  as  good  as  hay  for  horses;  and  the  hay,  when  it  has  been 


HISTORY.  63 

well  got  in,  my  horses  that  have  worked  hard  have  heen  kept  on 
it  alone  without  any  grain,  have  been  so  fond  of  it  that  they  have 
refused  beans  and  oats  mixed  with  chaff  in  the  common  way  for 
it.  Sheep  also  will  be  fatted  in  pens  in  winter,  with  only  this 
hay  and  water,  better  than  with  corn,  peas,  oats,  and  the  like.  In 
short,  there  is  no  hay  that  is  made  is  equal  to  it,  and  the  produce 
will  be  double  that  of  clover.  The  land  where  it  is  sown  should 
be  very  clean  from  weeds,  under  a  fine  tilth;  which  is  best  done 
by  a  turnip  fallow. 

Lucerne  is  the  plant  which  the  ancients  were  so  fond  of  under 
the  name  of  Medica,  and  in  the  culture  of  which  they  bestowed 
such  great  care  and  pains.  Its  leaves  grow  three  at  a  joint,  like  those 
of  the  clover;  its  flowers  are  blue,  and  its  pods  of  a  screw-like 
shape,  containing  seeds  like  those  of  the  red  clover  but  longer 
and  more  kidney  shaped,  and  the  color  all  yellow.  The  stalks 
grow  erect,  and  after  mowing  they  immediately  grow  up  again 
from  the  parts  where  they  were  cut  off.  The  roots  are  longer 
than  the  saintfoin,  and  are  not  single,  but  some  times  they  run 
perpendicularly  in  three  or  four  places  from  the  crown. 

It  is  the  only  plant  in  the  world  whose  hay  is  equal  to  the 
saintfoin  for  the  fattening  of  cattle;  but  its  virtues  in  that  re- 
spect are  very  great.  It  is  the  sweetest  grass  in  the  world,  but 
must  be  given  to  cattle  with  caution,  and  in  small  quantities, 
otherwise  they  will  swell,  and  incur  diseases  from  it. 

Though  the  common  methods  of  husbandry  will  not  raise 
lucerne  to  any  great  advantage,  yet  the  drilling  and  the  horse- 
hoe  husbandry  will  raise  it,  annually  increasing  in  value  to  the 
owner,  and  make  one  of  the  most  profitable  articles  of  his  busi- 
ness. 

The  soil  to  plant  it  on  must  be  either  a  hot  gravel,  or  a  very 
rich  and  dry  land  that  has  not  an  under  stratum  of  clay,  and  is 
not  too  near  springs  of  water.  The  natural  poorness  of  gravel  or 
sand  may  be  made  up  by  dung,  and  the  benefit  of  the  hoe,  and 
the  natural  richness  of  the  other  lands,  being  increased  by  hoe- 
ing and  cleansing  from  grass,  the  lucerne  will  thrive  with  less 
heat;  for  what  is  wanted  in  one  of  those  qualities  must  be  made 
up  in  the  other. 

The  best  season  for  planting  of  it  is  early  in  the  spring,  the 
earlier  the  better;  for.  then  there  is  always  moisture  enough  in 
the  earth  to  make  it  grow,  and  not  too  much  heat  as  would  dry 
up  its  tender  roots,  and  kill  it  after  the  first  shootings.  About 
a  pound  and  a  half  of  seed  will  be  enough  for  an  acre. 

The  planting  it  in  autumn  in  some  climates  might  do;  but 
here  the  winters  are  too  cold,  which  would  kill  great  part  of  the 
tender  plants,  and  greatly  stunt  and  injure  those  it  does  not  kill. 


64  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

The  number  of  the  lucerne  plants  should  be  less  than  those  ot 
saintfoin  to  an  acre,  because  they  grow  much  larger  in  this  way 
of  management,  and  each  occupies  a  greater  space  of  ground,  and 
produces  a  larger  quantity  of  hay. 

The  quick  growth  of  this  plant  requires  that  it  should  have 
large  supplies  of  nourishment,  and  good  room  to  grow  in;  and  it 
is  better  in  all  things  of  this  kind  to  err  in  setting  the  plants  too 
far  distant,  than  in  setting  them  too  near. 

The  most  fatal  diseases  incident  to  lucerne  are  starving  and 
smothering;  for  this  reason  good  cultivation  is  necessary  to  it, 
and  the  often  turning  the  earth  with  the  hoe  all  about  it.  By 
this  means,  a  plant  that  in  the  common  way  of  sowing  would  not 
have  been  more  than  eight  or  nine  inches  high,  will  be  four  or 
five  feet,  and  will  spread  every  way  so  as  to  produce  a  quantity 
of  hay,  more  like  the  cutting  of  a  shrub  than  a  plant. 

The  plants  should  stand  at  five  inches  distance  in  single  rows, 
and  the  intervals  between  these  rows  must  be  left  wide  enough 
for  the  use  of  the  hoe  plough,  (if  managed  according  to  the 
horse-hoe  husbandry) ;  but  if  hand  hoed,  one  foot  between  the 
rows  will  do:  for  which  I  will  refer  you  to  my  experiments  on 
fallow  crops,  where  you  will  find  that  by  this  method  I  had  at 
the  rate  of  four  tun  lucerne  hay  per  acre.  But  lucerne  sown  in 
drills  so  near  will  in  a  few  years  meet  in  the  rows,  which  will 
hinder  the  mould  being  stirred,  when  it  will  starve  for  want  of 
nourishment,  and  thereby  wear  out. 

Lucerne  is  of  much  quicker  growth  than  saintfoin,  or  any 
other  grass.  I  have  cut  it  four  times  in  a  season,  whereas  the 
others  are  seldom  cut  above  twice. 

Lucerne  is  to  be  made  into  hay,  the  same  as  saintfoin  or  clover; 
but  this  must  be  observed,  that  it  is  always  to  be  cut  just  before 
it  comes  to  flower.  It  is  a  fine  food,  if  cut  for  the  cattle  green, 
it  is  so  sweet  and  full  of  nourishment  but  it  must  be  kept  clean 
from  natural  grass,  as  that  soon  choaks  and  kills  it. 

Of  the  introduction  of  alfalfa  into  the  Pacific  coast 
region  we  have  less  recorded.  Naturally  the  people 
of  Spanish  blood,  settling  California  from  Mexico, 
brought  their  favorite  farm  seeds  with  them,  seeds 
of  their  best  suited  farm  crops ;  among  these  was  ^ 
alfalfa.  Not  much  alfalfa  was  grown  in  California 
by  the  Spanish  colonists,  enough  probably  to  give 
them  credit  for  the  introduction  there,  as  they  cer- 


HISTORY.  65 

tainly  must  claim  credit  for  its  introduction  into 
southwestern  Texas  and  probably  into  New  Mexico 
and  perhaps  into  Arizona. 

It  took  the  keen  prophetic  insight  of  the  Ameri- 
can, however,  to  see  in  the  alfalfa  plant  the  wonder- 
ful possibilities  that  lay  within  it.  Gold  was  discov- 
ered in  California  in  1847  and  immediately  began  a 
great  rush  for  that  land.  Many  men  went  by  the 
long  route  " around  The  Horn."  In  Chili  a  good 
land  and  fertile,  with  well  developed  agriculture, 
ships  tarried  often  for  a  little  time.  The  passengers 
wearied  with  the  long  sea  voyage  took  themselves 
with  delight  to  the  fields.  There  they  saw  alfalfa 
for  the  first  time.  Some  of  them  took  seed  of  it  with 
them  to  California.  Others  sent  back  there  for  seed 
and  sowed  it  in  California,  land  of  promise.  Cali- 
fornia proved  to  have  suitable  soil  and  climate,  and 
alfalfa  throve  there  astonishingly.  Gold  could  not 
always  be  found  with  pick  and  shovel,  it  could  with- 
out fail  be  found  by  alfalfa  roots.  For  the  first  time 
in  its  history  alfalfa  became  a  great  crop  and  men 
began  to  plant  it  largely,  to  talk  of  it  and  write  of  it. 

Probably  no  one  knows  more  of  the  early  history 
of  alfalfa  in  California  than  E.  J.  Wickson,  Director 
of  the  California  experiment  station  and  dean  of  the 
agricultural  college.  My  letter  to  him  containing 
questiors  and  his  answers  thereto  is  presented: 

I  am  delighted  that  you  will  undertake  to  help  me  in  my  alfalfa 
investigations.  I  know  of  no  man  better  fitted  than  you.  The 
points  I  particularly  wish  to  know  are  not  very  difficult  of  answer. 

Question:  On  what  date  did  the  real  introduction  of  alfalfa  in 
California  take  place,  and  where  was  it  sown? 

Answer:    I  have  record  of  sowing  alfalfa  by  W.  B.  Cameron, 


66  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

near  Marysville  in  the  Sacramento  Valley  in  1851,  who  continued 
until  he  had  270  acres  in  1858. 

Question:    What  was  the  source  of  the  seed? 

Answer:  From  Chili  and  the  plant  was  called  Chili  clover  until 
its  Spanish  name  alfalfa  was  taken  up.  It  was  some  time  later 
when  its  botanical  identity  with  lucerne  was  known. 

Question:  Were  there  many  alfalfa  fields  or  patches  in  use  by 
the  Mexicans,  or  earlier  Californians,  prior  to  the  occupation  by 
the  United  States? 

Answer:  I  never  heard  of  any.  Introduction  is  believed  to 
have  been  by  Americans  from  Chili  with  which  country  there 
was  much  trade  and  where  stops  were  made  coming  round  The 
Horn. 

Question:  What  is  the  oldest  alfalfa  field  that  you  know  of  to 
day,  and  about  how  many  years? 

Answer:  I  have  no  definite  instance.  The  plant  on  good  soil— - 
that  is  free  soil  where  no  root  injury  comes  from  standing  water 
— is  counted  upon  for  more  than  20  years  of  profitable  growth. 

Question:  About  what  percentage  of  carbonate  of  lime  exists  in 
the  most  productive  alfalfa  soils  of  California? 

Answer:  We  are  now  growing  alfalfa  on  nearly  all  productive 
soils,  the  acreage  on  the  heavier  soils,  formerly  held  to  be  un- 
suitable, increasing  every  year.  The  average  lime  in  California 
soils  (average  of  262  analyses)  is  1.25%. 

Question:  What  would  you  consider  an  average  yearly  pro- 
duction per  acre  of  alfalfa  hay? 

Answer:  Five  tons. 

Question:  What  is  the  maximum  that  you  have  known? 

Answer:  I  cannot  be  sure  but  think  it  has  gone  up  to  12  tons. 

Question:  We  hear  very  astonishing  stories  of  long  alfalfa 
roots;  how  long  a  one  have  you  actually  seen  measured,  or  had 
knowledge  of  that  you  considered  authentic? 

Answer:  24  feet  but  others  claim  up  to  30  feet. 

Concerning  Henry  Miller's  alfalfa  I  wrote  in 
"The  Breeder's  Gazette"  in  September  of  1900  as 
follows : 

Away  back  in  1850  there  landed  in  San  Francisco  a  lad  with 
fifty 'cents  in  his  pocket,  a  brave  heart  and  a  determination  to 
work  and  succeed  in  this  new  world.  He  went  to  work  in  a 
butcher  shop.  Soon  he  had  a  small  shop  of  his  own.  Then  it 
was  a  large  shop.  Then  he  bought,  in  1858,  a  little  land  on  which 
to  hold  some  cattle.  In  1860  he  bought  land  in  the  San  Joaquin 


HISTORY.  67 

Valley.  It  was  dry  semi-arid  land.  Some  of  his  associates  won- 
dered what  he  would  do  with  it.  He  bought  more.  After  a  time, 
I  think  in  1872,  he  took  out  a  canal  to  water  it.  In  1873  he  im- 
ported some  alfalfa  seed  from  Chili.  He  sowed  7  acres,  a  large 
operation  at  that  time.  Gradually  the  holdings  of  land  and  of 
cattle  increased.  Today  the  firm  owns  about  a  million  of  acres 
of  land,  most  of  it  in  California.  They  have  about  100,000  head 
of  cattle.  They  have  about  120,000  sheep.  This  growth  all  repre- 
sents the  profit  made  in  growing,  killing  and  selling  cattle  and 
sheep. 

Henry  Miller  is  one  of  the  wonderful  men  of  our  time.  He  is 
one  of  the  men  with  foresight  and  faith.  His  manager,  Mr. 
Schmitz,  of  the  Poso  ranch  at  Firebaugh,  has  been  with  Mr. 
Miller  for  thirty  years.  He  told  me  many  incidents  that  showed 
the  kind  of  stuff  of  which  the  man  is  made.  Here  is  an  instance: 
When  the  water  was  out  Mr.  Schmitz  was  instructed  to  irrigate 
and  sow  barley.  The  land  was  not  prepared  for  irrigation.  Mr. 
Schmitz  and  his  Irish  laborers  knew  little  or  nothing  of  the  art. 
They  had  a  tremendous  time  of  it.  Mr.  Schmitz  lived  night  and 
day  in  the  fields,  trying  to  manage  the  elusive  water.  The  crop 
was  a  fair  one,  but  netted  a  loss  of  some  $2,000.  Mr.  Schmitz  re- 
ported and  asked  to  be  allowed  to  resign.  "What  for?"  asked 
Mr.  Miller.  "Well,  it  does  not  pay.  I  would  not  mind  working 
if  I  could  see  that  it  was  a  success,"  he  replied.  "See  here,  Mr. 
Schmitz,  suppose  you  look  after  the  work  and  let  me  do  the 
figuring,"  said  Henry  Miller. 

When  alfalfa  proved  the  success  that  it  did  the  solution  of  the 
problem  was  in  sight.  After  that  it  became  a  simple  matter  of 
steadily  enlarging  the  areas  of  irrigated  lands,  of  alfalfa  fields,  of 
cattle.  Today  on  Mr.  Schmitz's  division  of  Poso  farm  of  160,000" 
acres  there  are  2-0,000  acres  of  alfalfa.  There  are  25,000  acres  of 
irrigated  native  grasses.  He  cuts  15,000  tons  of  alfalfa  hay.  He 
grows  50,000  sacks  of  barley  and  5,000  sacks  of  Egyptian  corn. 
His  tenants  grow  some.  100,000  sacks  of  wheat  and  20,000  sacks  of 
barley. 

Poso  farm  carries  about  25,000  head  of  cattle.  It  has  about 
40,000  sheep  and  ships  about  5,000  hogs  each  year. 

Do  those  figures  make  you  dizzy?  Well,  I  will  not  deal  much 
in  figures  from  this"  time  on.  You  can  get  the  idea  that  it  is 
not  merely  a  ranch,  a  farm,  but  almost  a  state,  certainly  a  prin- 
cipality in  itself.  If  there  is  anything  like  it  in  the  world  I 
have  not  heard  of  it.  We  rode  up  the  great  weir  in  the  San 
Joaquin  River,  whence  the  canal  starts  that  leads  off  westward 
and  divides  the  watered  land  from  the  dry.  A  lovely  river  is  the 
San  Joaquin  at  this  time  of  the  year.  Calm,  neither  hurrying 


68  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

nor  loitering,  it  sweeps  on  toward  the  bay,  flowing  under  cool 
shadows,  stretching  out  wide  over  shallower  reaches,  and  em- 
bracing tree-embowered  islands.  It  bears  water  enough  to  make 
a  garden  of  the  entire  valley,  could  it  be  held  back  until  needed. 
The  canal  is  large  enough  for  steamships  at  the  head;  it  divides 
after  a  time,  and  divides  again  and  again  as  needed,  until  there 
is  a  vast  network  of  ditches. 'hundreds  of  miles,  so  much  that 
Mr.  Schmitz  declined  to  even  guess  the  total  length.  Italian 
laborers  take  the  water  from  the  ditches  and  spread  it  over  the 
land.  Dikes,  following  the  contours,  make  it  spread  over  all. 
The  alfalfa  fields  are  irrigated  three  times  each  season.  There  is 
so  large  an  area  to  water  that  it  is  not  practical  to  get  over  them 
oftener  than  that,  yet  it  would  doubtless  be  better  if  it  could  be 
done.  And  the  cattle  graze  the  alfalfa,  except  that  one  crop  is 
taken  from  the  field  and  made  into  hay  for  winter  feeding. 

Alfalfa  grows  rank  over  here.  It  is  the  best  that  I  have  yet 
seen  in  California.  The  cattle  thrive  on  it  as  a  matter  of  course. 
They  are  careful  not  to  turn  hungry  cattle  on  alfalfa  pasture. 
They  must  be  first  filled  up  with  hay  or  grass.  After  once  be- 
coming accustomed  to  green  alfalfa  they  are  never  taken  away, 
so  do  not  get  hungry,  gorge  themselves  and  bloat.  That  seems 
the  explanation  of  it  all.  They  graze  it  with  many  thousands, 
yet  lose  hardly  any  at  all.  And  sheep  are  treated  the  same  way. 
I  never  saw  such  lambs  as  these  alfalfa  lambs.  They  are  born 
early,  in  February  generally,  and  they  run  on  the  alfalfa  until 
they  go  to  the  butchers.  Often  their  mothers  are  fat  enough  to 
go  also  in  a  short  time  after  the  lambs  are  taken  away.  The 
herder  merely  restrains  them  from  roaming  about  over  the  fields 
and  trampling  down  too  much  at  a  time.  The  alfalfa  is  not 
grazed  short,  there  is  no  chasing  the  sheep  away  after  they  have 
eaten  a  little,  there  is  no  running  them  about  to  keep  them  from 
bloating;  they  are  simply  gotten  used  to  it  and  left  alone  until 
they  get  fat.  And  the  loss  is  very  light  indeed.  Shropshire  rams 
are  mostly  used.  The  ewe  flocks  are  largely  kept  up  by  purchase 
of  range  ewes.  The  increase  reaches  as  high  as  120%.  The 
quality  of  the  Miller  &  Lux  cattle  is  very  good — much  better 
than  the  average.  Very  many  registered  and  more  pure-bred  but 
unregistered  Short-horns  are  used,  but  the  California  idea  pre- 
vails that  a  Short-horn  is  not  good  unless  he  is  red.  And,  by  the 
way,  there  are  no  Short-horns  in  California;  there  are  only 
"Durhams."  This  term  is  also  used  in  Utah  and  Nevada.  At 
present  the  cattle  are  kept  until  they  are  three  and  four  years 
old.  The  question  of  early  maturity  seems  to  have  been  little 
considered. 

I  saw  them  dipping  cattle  as  a  preventive  of  Texas  fever.  The 


HISTORY.  69 

dipping  vat  is  made  exactly  on  the  model  of  a  sheep-dipping  vat 
It  is  about  75  feet  long  and  the  cattle  are  put  through  very 
rapidly  and  without  loss.  The  lime  and  sulphur  dip  is  used,  to 
which  a  quantity  of  crude  petroleum  is  added.  This  certainly 
destroys  the  ticks  if  any  exist  and  for  a  time  keeps  off  the  flies. 
As  to  the  ultimate  benefit,  as  they  are  put  back  on  supposedly  in- 
fected pastures,  I  think  it  a  matter  of  experiment.  It  costs  about 
five  cents  to  dip  a  steer.  It  makes  a  few  orphan  calves,  that  is 
the  worst  of  the  practice.  About  3,000  can  be  dipped  in  a  day 
at  one  of  these  plants.  The  getting  of  the  cattle  to  the  dipping 
vat  is  the  main  part  of  the  work.  As  a  matter  of  dipping,  this 
is  entirely  successful.  None  of  the  loss  or  difficulty  that  the  Gov- 
ernment dipping  experiments  reported  are  encountered  here.  And 
I  have  no  doubt  that  the  dipping  removes  the  ticks. 

Winter  feeding  is  carried  on  here  in  an  immense  way.  There 
is  quite  an  elaborate  plan  of  procedure.  In  order  to  understand 
it  you  must  consider  two  propositions:  one  that  the  hay  has  in 
it  more  or  less  of  "foxtail"  grass,  which  has  on  it  disagreeable 
barbs,  and  that  it  is  desired  to  mix  with  the  hay  a  very  small 
amount  of  grain.  The  problem  is  to  get  rid  of  the  danger  of  the 
foxtail,  and  to  mix  four  pounds  of  ground  barley  with  some  30 
pounds  of  alfalfa  hay  and  make  a  ration  for  a  steer.  All  the  hay 
is  cut  through  great  Ross  cutters,  then  it  .is  put  on  the  floor  of 
the  great  feeding  barn  and  wet  down.  This  barn  holds  no  cattle. 
Then  the  ground  grain  is  mixed  with  it.  It  stands  for  about 
forty-eight  hours,  until  it  becomes  soft  and  slightly  fermented, 
then  it  is  taken  out  and  fed.  It  is  in  the  same  condition  as 
alfalfa  silage.  The  cattle  thrive  better  on  34  pounds  a  day  of 
this  ration  than  on  50  pounds  of  uncut  alfalfa  fed  out  of  doors 
on  the  ground.  That  is  what  these  men  believe,  and  who  will 
argue  against  so  much  experience?  But  the  amount  of  labor  in- 
volved would  stagger  an  ordinary  mind.  Imagine  handling  12,000 
tons  of  alfalfa  in  this  way,  as  Mr.  Schmitz  must  do  on  his  own 
farm.  The  amount  of  grain  fed  in  proportion  to  hay  is  very 
small,  it  would  seem.  Yet  the  hay  is  of  prime  quality;  it  is  as 
rich  as  hay  can  possibly  be. 

The  method  of  making  hay  on  this  ranch  is  interesting.  It  is 
cut  and  raked  with  ordinary  tools.  It  is  then  caught  up  by 
large  buck  rakes  on  wheels  that  carry  about  700  pounds  to  the 
stack.  It  is  lifted  by  a  great  sling,  and  swung  over  the  rick  by 
a  sort  of  crane.  Or  it  is  loaded  on  wagons  and  hauled  farther  and 
lifted  by  a  Stockton  fork.  These  forks  are  5,  6  or  7  feet  long; 
they  take  up  enormous  loads  and  are  distinctly  better  than  the 
harpoon  or.  grapple  forks  used  East.  I  mean  to  have  one  on  our 
own  ranch  and  one  in  Ohio.  The  ricks  are  not  left  sharp,  and 
mAj 

OF   THE 

UNIVERSITY 


70  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

in  our  wet  Ohio  climate  would  spoil  badly.  The  haymakers  are 
largely  Italians;  the  irrigators  are  Italians.  Spaniards  do  some 
of  the  work.  Basques  do  some  of  it,  Mexicans  do  a  part,  Portu- 
guese do  a  part,  Chinese  do  the  cooking  and  gardening.  Ameri- 
cans do  a  little  of  everything,  and  are  often  foremen.  Mr. 
Schmitz  speaks  three  or  four  languages,  and  finds  them  almost 
indispensable.  Things  must  go  wrong  very  often  on  such  a  vast 
ranch;  there  must  be  perplexities  and  vexations  enough  to  vex 
a  saint.  Think  then  how  convenient  to  have  three  or  four  lan- 
guages in  which  to  express  your  disapprobation  with  things  in 
general  and  the  case  in  particular! 

This  much  for  one  man's  fortunes  as  built  on  al- 
falfa roots.  But  other  men  were  awakening  to  the 
value  of  the  plant. 

Soon  it  spread  over  much  of  California,  and 
thence  eastward  into  Utah  where  it  was  called  lu- 
cerne and  where  it  throve  as  well  as  it  could  thrive 
anywhere  on  earth.  In  Utah  were  many  small  farm- 
ers, careful  men,  keeping  cows  and  horses  and  pigs 
with  poultry  and  bees.  To  these  men  alfalfa  was  a 
god-send.  The  Mormon  farmers  began  to  cut  alfalfa 
for  seed.  From  Utah  seed  nearly  the  whole  west  has 
been  planted.  Colorado  took  alfalfa  next;  fields  of 
good  size  were  being  sown  in  1886  when  first  the 
writer  traveled  through  that  state.  A  little  later 
alfalfa  suddenly  sprang  into  great  prominence  in 
Colorado.  By  its  ability  to  enrich  soils  and  make 
lands  fit  for  potatoes,  beets  or  any  other  thing  it 
came  into  great  favor.  A  hundred  villages  in  Colo- 
rado are  built  upon  the  alfalfa  plant.  Alfalfa  is 
more  to  Colorado  than  all  her  gold,  all  her  silver,  all 
her  wheat  or  sugar  or  forests.  To  take  away  alfalfa 
from  Colorado  would  destroy  the  very  foundations 
of  her  prosperity  and  nothing  known  upon  the  earth 


HISTORY.  71 

could  possibly  replace  this  rich,  beautiful  and  won- 
derfully useful  plant. 

From  Colorado  alfalfa  came  naturally  into  Kan- 
sas, beginning  to  be  an  important  factor  there  about 
the  year  1894.  At  first  it  was  grown  only  along  the 
Arkansas  river,  and  in  the  dryer  parts  of  the  state. 
Gradually  it  overspread  nearly  all  of  Kansas,  being 
of  most  importance  on  the  richer,  dryer,  sweeter 
soils.  Nebraska  followed  Kansas  in  taking  up  alfal- 
fa growing.  Along  the  Platte  Eiver  it  established 
itself  strongly  and  in  the  western  part  of  the  state, 
while  gradually,  surely  its  roots  penetrated  nearly 
every  part  of  the  state.  East  of  the  Missouri  Eiver 
alfalfa  made  slow  progress.  Iowa  grew  a  little,  Mis- 
souri on  her  alluvial  soils  along  the  Missouri 
and  Mississippi  rivers  planted  fields  and  gradually 
the  growth  extended.  Illinois  undertook  alfalfa  cul- 
ture in  1898  or  earlier,  but  as  yet  the  industry  there 
is  hardly  more  than  in  its  experimental  stage,  some 
men  having  made  notable  success,  but  many  having 
failed.  Wisconsin  grows  much  alfalfa,  having  soils 
well  drained  and  rich  in  lime.  Minnesota  began  its 
culture  in  1857  when  Wendelin  Grimm  came  from 
the  little  village  of  Kulsheim,  Germany,  bringing 
with  him  a  little  bag  of  alfalfa  seed  from  his  old 
home  in  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden.  This  was  the 
"ewiger  klee"  or  everlasting  clover  of  Grimm,  and 
from  that  day  to  this  in  Carver  Co.,  Minnesota,  alr 
falfa  has  been  grown.  Indiana  attempted  alfalfa 
culture  and  the  experiment  station  published  a  bul- 
letin charging  that  alfalfa  was  not  particularly 


72  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

adapted  to  that  state.  In  later  bulletins  this  mis- 
taken idea  has  been  corrected.  Alfalfa  is  now  grown 
with  much  profit  in  many  parts  of  Indiana  and  only 
that  many  fields  yet  are  waiting  to  be  limed,  drained 
and  enriched  is  all  that  prevents  Indiana  growing 
at  least  a  million  tons  each  year. 

Alfalfa  culture  in  Ohio  came  probably  with  the 
efforts  of  the  writer  and  his  brothers,  as  detailed  in 
the  introduction  to  this  book.  Pennsylvania  pub- 
lished a  bulletin  in  1904  detailing  how  to  grow  al- 
falfa and  since  then  much  has  been  done  in  prelim- 
inary work  of  experimentation  and  it  is  now  known 
that  alfalfa  will  grow  almost  anywhere  in  that  state 
where  the  land  is  drained,  limed  and  enriched.  Mary- 
land grew  alfalfa  during  colonial  times  and  a  few 
farmers  kept  it  up  in  a  small  way  till  this  day.  To- 
day alfalfa  is  grown  in  every  county  of  the  state  and 
with  the  new  knowledge  of  the  lime  requirement  for 
alfalfa,  its  culture  is  now  on  a  sure  footing  and  the 
crop  is  destined  to  be  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  state.  New  Jersey,  once  in  colonial  days  grow- 
ing it  well,  has  suffered  a  relapse  yet  there  are  many 
men  over  the  state  succeeding  with  it,  and  when  the 
need  of  lime  and  drainage  is  understood,  doubtless 
New  Jersey  will  also  grow  large  areas  of  this  beau- 
tiful forage.  Director  Edward  B.  Voorhees  of  the 
New  Jersey  experiment  station  has  done  notable 
work  in  teaching  the  essentials  of  alfalfa  culture 
and  especially  in  calling  attention  to  the  marvelous 
power  of  alfalfa  to  enrich  land  when  the  crops  are 
fed  and  the  manure  applied. 


HISTORY.  73 

In  New  York  alfalfa  has  been  grown  continuously 
for  over  a  century.  The  following  notes  on  the  early 
history  of  alfalfa  in  New  York,  by  F.  E.  Dawley, 
are  of  value  and  interest : 

From  1791  to  1800,  Mr.  Robert  Livingstone,  of  Jefferson  county, 
New  York,  conducted  some  experiments,  many  of  which  were 
successful,  and  from  investigations  made  in  the  vicinity  of  Le- 
Raysville,  in  that  county,  I  feel  certain  that  there  are  still  grow- 
ing wild  there  alfalfa  plants  which  are  descended  from  his  orig- 
inal plantings.  Following  these  experiments,  the  next  that  I  am 
able  to  get  any  authentic  record  of  are  those  made  about  1812 
in  Onondago  county  by  Sterling  Lamson  and  Moses  Dewitt,  and 
in  Jefferson  county  by  Ezra  L'Hommedieu.  About  four  miles 
west  of  Cedarvale,  in  this  county,-  a  few  scattered  plants  have 
been  growing  for  years  on  a  side-hill,  which  I  believe  came  from 
the  seeding  made  by  Mr.  Lamson,  as  I  can  get  no  record  of  its 
having  been  planted  in  that  vicinity  until  within  the  past  ten 
years,  and  these  scattering  plants  have  been  known  there  for  at 
least  forty  years.  In  a  diary  kept  by  this  man  in  1815,  the  state- 
ment is  made  about  alfalfa,  that  it  grew  so  coarse  that  the  ani- 
mals would  not  eat  it  dry  and  that  it  was  very  dangerous  in 
pastures  because  of  producing  bloat.  In  1851  a  cask  of  alfalfa 
seed  was  distributed  among  members  of  the  American  Institute 
and  many  patches  were  grown  in  New  York,  New  Jersey  and 
Connecticut. 

In  1865  in  this  section  there  was  great  interest  in  bee-keeping. 
A  man  by  the  name  of  Rosenkranz  traveled  all  over  the  country 
selling  rights  for  using  the  Langstroth  bee  hive  and  giving  in- 
struction in  bee-keeping.  He  had  traveled  extensively  on  the 
Pacific  coast  and  had  become  greatly  interested  in  alfalfa  as  a 
bee-food.  Among  the  bee-keepers  in  this  section  who  were  in- 
duced to  try  alfalfa  were  my  father,  Wm.  Dawley,  James  Patter- 
son, Charles  Phillips,  William  A.  House,  who  lived  on  the  farm 
which  I  now  own,  and  many  others.  In  the  western  part  of  the 
state  those  who  tried  alfalfa  were  not  very  successful,  although 
Mr.  Phillips  had  a  remarkably  good  stand  at  one  time.  I  be- 
lieve that  all  of  them  sowed  it  too  thinly  and  that  the  proper 
bacteria  were  not  present  in  sufficient  quantities  to  make  it  a 
success.  •  One  of  these  experimenters  sent  to  California  for  a 
bag  of  seed,  which  was  shipped  to  him  in  the  hull,  being  very 
dusty  and  foul.  From  this  lot  of  seed,  however,  sent  about  1870, 
on  the  farm  which  I  now  own  can  be  traced,  I  think,  the  origin 
of  successful  alfalfa  growing  here. 


74  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

A  little  later  than  this  Dr.  E.  Lawis  Sturtevant,  who  had 
charge  of  the  state  experiment  station  at  Geneva  and  was  very 
much  interested  in  alfalfa  growing,  recommended  its  planting 
quite  largely  and  many  fields  were  put  out.  The  failures  in  this 
state  outnumber  the  successes  greatly;  still  in  the  townships  of 
Onondago,  Dewitt,  Geddes  and  Manlius,  Onondago  county,  and 
Sullivan  in  Madison  county,  there  are  to  be  found  many  acres 
of  very  successful  growth,  and  on  high  lands  in  these  counties 
four-fifths  of  all  the  hay  cut  last  year  was  alfalfa. 

At  the  present  writing  alfalfa  is  being  grown  con- 
siderably over  nearly  the  whole  of  the  state  of  New 
York,  but  chiefly  in  the  limestone  regions  of  central 
New  York,  its  greatest  use  being  probably  in  Onon- 
daga  county.  There  is  much  limestone  in  New  York 
and  the  farmers  are  generally  intelligent  and  'enter- 
prising. It  would  seem  that  as  soon  as  they  realize 
that  by  abundant  use  of  carbonate  of  lime,  making 
their  soils  somewhat  like  those  alkaline  soils  of  Colo- 
rado and  California,  they  can  grow  alfalfa  as  well  as 
the  West,  and  that  alfalfa  in  New  York  is  worth  fully 
double  what  it  is  in  the  West,  they  will  take  the  mat- 
ter up  in  serious  earnest  and  spread  its  culture  fast 
and  wide. 

It  is  interesting  to  know  that  in  old  Virginia,  where 
once  George  Washington  and  Thomas  Jefferson  vied 
with  each  other  in  growing  lucerne,  there  are  now  at 
least  'two  great  farms  growing  alfalfa  in  hundreds 
if  not  thousands  of  tons  as  is  done  in  the  West,  'and 
perhaps  more  interest  is  >shown  in  alfalfa  culture  in 
Virginia  at  this  time  than  in  any  other  state  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard. 

Of  the  southern  states  Alabama,  Mississippi,  Ark- 
ansas and  Louisiana  are  doing  most  with  alfalfa, 


HISTORY.  75 

Louisiana  perhaps  leading.  Alfalfa  revels  in  alluvial 
soils  rich  in  lime.  These  soils  are  found  along  the 
deltas  of  the  Mississippi,  Arkansas  and  Red  rivers. 
A  great  per  cent  of  the  state  of  Louisiana  is  adapted 
to  alfalfa  growing  once  it  is  drained  and  the  soil 
made  ready.  Mississippi  has  alluvial  "buckshot" 
soils  along  the  western  side  and  limestone  black  soils 
along  the  eastern  side.  In  each  of  these  soil  types 
alfalfa  thrives.  It  is  a  remarkable  fact  that  lands 
that  can  be  bought  for  $25  to  $50  per  acre  in  these 
states  will  grow  four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre 
and  the  hay  is  worth  at  present  writing  $20  per  ton. 
Albania  has  similar  limestone  soils  and  is  doing  well 
with  alfalfa  thereon.  The  common  upland  soils  of 
Alabama  will  grow  alfalfa  when  well  limed  and  en- 
riched and  it  is  thriving  in  many  places  where  right 
preparation  has  been  made. 

With  all  this  encouraging  evidence  of  the  spread 
of  'alfalfa  culture  there  remains  much  to  be  done. 
Not  one  acre  in  a  thousand  is  made  ready  for  alfalfa 
that  should  be  made  ready.  Think  of  Iowa  with  her 
wide  fields  of  maize,  steadily  growing  less  and  less 
fertile  because  'of  the  drain  made  upon  them ;  think 
of  her  herds  of  cattle,  her  sheep,  her  cows  and  swine 
all  craving  alfalfa  to  balance  up  a  ration  too  exclu- 
sively corn.  Think  of  Illinois,  her  high  priced  lands, 
her  fields  famed  for  riches  but  their  fertility  steadily 
diminishing,  her  need  of  foods  rich  in  protein,  her 
.need  of  soil  building.  And  Indiana  with  her  poorer 
soils  and  smaller  farms  needs  alfalfa  on  every  farm 
she  possesses,  and  Ohio  needs  it  more  with  her  thou- 


76  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

sands  of  dairy  farms  and  her  sheep  farms  and  pig 
breeding  farms.  The  same  is  true  of  Pennsylvania 
and  New  York,  only  the  need  is  greater,  for  the 
farther  east  one  goes  the  higher  priced  is  hay  and  the 
more  wheat  bran  is  bought  to  furnish  protein  to 
make  milk  or  grow  animals. 

All  over  America  just  now  there  is  a  quickening  of 
the  agricultural  life.  Men  are  awakening,  gaining 
new  courage,  new  hope.  The  young  have  higher  as- 
pirations than  ever  before;  farming  is  coming  out 
from  the  ruts;  it  is  no  longer  a  disgrace  to  be  a 
farmer.  The  best  brains  and  best  thought  and  best 
blood  of  -the  land  are  being  devoted  to  agriculture. 
Alfalfa  comes  at  opportune  time.  It  fits  in  on  every 
farm,  once  the  soil  is  made  right.  It  is  a  permanent 
thing.  It  is  a  mine  of  riches,  a  magazine  of  rich 
provender,  a  source  of  fertility  wherewith  to  build 
animals  and  to  build  other  soils. 

Alfalfa  brings  hope,  courage  and  joy.  It  brings 
beauty  to  field  and  landscape.  It  covers  over  the 
scars  made  on  the  face  of  Nature,  it  stops  the  waste 
of  erosion  and  soil  leaching.  Where  it  comes  boys 
cease  leaving  the  farm,  bees  come,  and  birds;  the 
cows  stand  tranquil  with  full  udders,  land  values 
advance,  paint  comes  to  the  country  school-house 
and  happy  children  trudge  along  the  lanes  with  well- 
filled  dinner  pails. 

And  is  it  practical  to  grow  alfalfa  over  all  this 
region!  It  is  practical.  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  sim- 
plest and  easiest  things  grown  in  the  world.  It  is 
one  of  the  hardiest  plants  known,  one  of  the  most 


HISTORY.  77 

responsive.  It  is  absolutely  easy  to  grow  alfalfa. 
There  are  no  longer  any  mysteries  about  it.  To  teach 
the  way  so  plain  that  anyone  can  follow  and  no  one 
longer  will  fail  is  the  purpose  of  this  book. 

The  writer  is  very  earnest  in  this  purpose.  He 
repeats  absolutely  it  is  true  that  every  farmer  may 
have  his  alfalfa  field  if  he  has  soil  with  water  level 
down  36",  or  soil  that  may  have  the  water  level  so 
lowered,  and  soil  not  entirely  composed  of  peat. 
Sands,  clays,  alluvial  soils,  all  alike  yield  to  the 
magic  of  alfalfa,  all  alike  robe  themselves  in  living 
green,  all  alike  yield  rich  forage  and  are  in  turn  en- 
riched themselves  by  the  alfalfa  growing  upon  them. 
There  are  keys  to  unlock  the  most  stubborn  soils. 

Today  we  have  those  keys.  No  longer  should  any 
man  fail  to  make  alfalfa  grow.  The  day  of  "experi- 
menting" with  alfalfa  is  over.  The  day  of  surely 
growing  it  has  come.  If  any  man  will  read  carefully 
the  plain  directions  in  this  book,  will  read  and  heed, 
he  will  grow  alfalfa,  whether  he  is  in  Maine  or  Mas- 
sachusetts, Dakota  or  Dahomey. 


VARIETIES   OF  ALFALFA. 

The  botanical  name  of  alfalfa  is  Medicago  sativa. 
It  belongs  to  the  class  of  plants  called  legumes.  Its 
relatives  are  the  clovers,  the  peas,  beans  and  locust 
trees.  There  are  thousands  of  kinds  of  leguminous 
plants  in  the  world  and  most  of  them  have  some  use. 
Some  provide  food  for  men,  as  the  peas  and  beans; 
some  provide  forage  for  animals;  all  or  nearly  all 
have  the  power  to  enrich  soils.  There  are  more  than 
50  rather  near  relatives  to  the  alfalfa  plant.  Some 
of  them  are  annuals,  some  are  biennials  and  some 
are  perennials.  Of  them  all  only  six  have  come  into 
general  use  as  forage  plants,  and  of  these  only  one 
or  two  have  much  merit.  The  descriptions  following 
are  from  Prof.  G.  F.  Freeman  of  Kansas: 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  sativa,  Linn)  is  an  upright,  much  branched 
smooth  or  slightly  pubescent  perennial  plant  one  to  three  feet 
high.  The  branches  arise  from  a  rather  woody  base  which 
crowns  a  long  tap-root.  This  root  with  its  branches  may  extend 
three  to  twelve,  or,  in  rare  cases,  even  fifteen  feet  deep,  rendering 
this  species  very  drought-resistant  on  account  of  its  being  able 
to  bring  up  water  from  the  subsoil  far  beyond  the  reach  of  ordi- 
nary plants.  The  leaves  are  arranged  alternately  on  the  stem 
and  are  trifoliate  or  three-parted,  each  part  being  slightly  broader 
above  the  middle  and  usually  tapering  each  way,  although  the 
apex  may  be  frequently  rounded,  blunt,  or  even  slightly  notched. 
The  pea-like  flowers,  varying  in  tint  from  pale,  almost  white,  to 
deep  reddish  purple,  are  arranged  in  rather  elongated  loose 
clusters  borne  on  the  ends  of  the  many  branches.  The  pods  are 
spirally  twisted  through  one  to  three  complete  curves,  forming  a 
coil  one-fourth  to  one-fifth  inch  in  diameter.  This  pod  contains 
from  one  to  eight  seeds.  The  seeds  are  kidney-shaped,  about  one- 
eighth  of  an  inch  long  and  a  little  more  than  half  as  wide. 


VARIETIES    OF    ALFALFA.  79 

From  an  agricultural  standpoint  this  species  is  by  far  the  most 
important,  being  probably  the  most  widely  grown  and  most  valu- 
able forage  plant  in  the  world. 

Yellow  lucerne  or  Swedish  clover  (Medicago  falcata)  is  a 
perennial  plant  strongly  resembling  alfalfa,  but  it  differs  from 
alfalfa  in  being  of  somewhat  lower,  more  spreading  habit  and 
having  bright  yellow  flowers.  It  is  a  native  of  northern  Europe, 
extending  into  Sweden  and  probably  far  into  northern  Siberia.  It 
shows  greater  cold  resistance  than  the  ordinary  alfalfa  and  is 
less  liable  to  winter-killing.  This  species  is  probably  identical 
with  the  yellow  Siberian  alfalfa  recently  introduced  by  Prof.  N. 
E.  Hansen  of  South  Dakota. 

Sand  lucerne  (Medicago  media  Pers.}.  "There  has  been  a  dif- 
ference of  opinion  among  European  botanists  in  regard  to  the  re- 
lationship of  sand  lucerne  to  other  lucernes  or  alfalfas,  viz.,  Med- 
icago sativa  (ordinary  alfalfa)  and  Medicago  falcata  (yellow  lu- 
cerne.) Alefeld  and  other  botanists  unite  common  alfalfa,  sand 
lucerne  and  yellow  lucerne  into  a  single  species.  Some  botanists 
look  upon  alfalfa  and  yellow  lucerne  as  distinct  species  and  con- 
sider sand  lucerne  as  a  hybrid  between  them.  Others  regard 
them  all  as  distinct  species.  The  three  forms,  however,  differ  so 
widely  in  agricultural  value  and  other  characters  that  they  can- 
not be  treated  together." 

"The  ordinary  distinguishing  characters  between  alfalfa  and 
sand  lucerne  are  easily  recognizable  when  the  two  are  grown  side 
by  side." 

"The  stiff  habit  of  alfalfa  differs  from  the  more  spreading 
habit  of  sand  lucerne.  The  flowers  of  the  former  are  bluish  to 
violet  purple,  while  those  of  the  latter  range  from  bluish  and 
purple  to  lemon  yellow,  with  many  intermediate  shades.  The  pods 
of  alfalfa  are  coiled  in  about  two  turns,  while  those  of  sand 
lucerne  are  in  about  three-fourths  of  one  coil.  The  seeds  of  the 
sand  lucerne  are  lighter  than  those  of  alfalfa.  Five  hundred  seeds 
of  sand  lucerne  weigh  from  0.8  to  0.9  gram,  while  the  same  number 
of  seeds  of  common  alfalfa  weigh  from  1  to  1.037  grams." 

"Sand  lucerne,  although  a  perennial  like  alfalfa,  is  not  so  pro- 
ductive in  lands  sufficiently  moist  for  the  latter  or  where  it  is 
hardy." 

However,  in  non-irrigated  land  in  parts  of  Wisconsin  and  in 
Utah  it  is  said  to  surpass  any  other  variety  except  the  Turkestan. 
In  the  moist  climate  of  Michigan  and  in  the  irrigated  land  of 
Utah,  on  the  other  hand,  it  was  much  inferior  to  the  ordinary 
sorts.  Seedsmen  advertise  it  as  being  hardier,  more  drought- 
resistant  and  better  able  to  stand  grazing  than  alfalfa,  and  say 


80  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

that  it  will  succeed  on  sandy  soil  which  is  too  light  to  produce 
profitable  crops  of  other  forage  plants. 

Yellow  trefoil  or  Hop  clover  (Medicago  lupulina  L.)  is  an 
annual  species  and  may  be  distinguished  from  alfaifa  by  its  more 
spreading  habit,  its  shorter  and  broader  tipped  leaves,  by  its  yel- 
low flowers,  and,  finally,  by  the  fact  that  the  pods  are  not  coiled, 
as  with  alfalfa,  although  coiled  to  make  a  single  incomplete  spiral. 
These  pods  also  differ  from  those  of  alfalfa  in  being  black  when 
ripe.  This  species  has  some  value  in  moist  regions,  but  is  far 
inferior  to  alfalfa. 

Bur  clover  (Medicago  denticulata  Willd.)  and  Spotted  Medic 
(Medicago  arabica  All.),  like  yellow  trefoil,  are  also  annual 
plants  and  have  yellow  flowers.  They  differ,  however,  from  all 
of  the  above-mentioned  species  in  having  burry  pods.  Although 
grown  in  some  localities,  they  are  of  little  agricultural  conse- 
quence. 

Bur  clover  inoculates  land  for  alfalfa  growing 
or  vice  versa.  They  carry  the  same  bacteria  on  their 
roots.  Mellilotus,  or  sweet  clover,  also  uses  the  same 
bacteria.  This  fact  is  useful  since  it  often  enables 
us  to  get  hold  of  inoculated  soil,  or  to  sow  one  of 
the  inferior  clovers  as  a  forerunner  of  alfalfa  for 
the  purpose  of  inoculating  the  soil  or  of  enriching  it 
and  storing  it  with  humus. 

Types  and  Varieties. — Alfalfa  is  remarkably  vari- 
able. One  can  go  into  a  field  sown  all  of  one  sort  of 
seed  and  select  in  it  a  hundred  plants,  no  two  having 
very  close  likeness.  Much  can  be  done  and  will  be 
done  to  select  varieties  having  desirable  character- 
istics. Already  the  Colorado  and  Kansas  experi- 
ment stations  are  doing  considerable  in  this  line, 
while  other  stations  not  so  well  located  are  also  at 
work,  notably  Ohio,  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota, 
and  the  Department  of  Agriculture  at  Washington. 

Natural  selection,  -or  the  law  of  the  survival  of  the 
fittest,  has  done  much  to  create  types.  For  example, 


VARIETIES    OF    ALFALFA.  81 

alfalfa  that  has  grown  for  some  generations  in  hot 
Arizona  becomes  by  elimination  a  type  adapted  to 
hot  climates,  and  alfalfa  grown  for  several  genera- 
tions in  Montana  or  North  Dakota  becomes  also  by 
elimination,  and  perhaps  to  some  extent  by  muta- 
tion, a  strain  able  to  endure  extreme  cold. 

The  practical  lesson  to  be  drawn  from  this  vari- 
ability of  alfalfa  is  that  it  is  best  to  choose  seed  com- 
ing from  a  region  in  about  the  same  latitude  as  one's 
own  farm.  Alfalfa  from  Arizona  is  not  hardy  in 
Nebraska.  Alfalfa  from  Montana  would  doubtless 
do  poorly  in  Arizona.  Alfalfa  from  California  has 
not  always  proved  hardy  in  the  East.  Alfalfa  from 
France  and  Germany  usually  succeeds  in  the  east- 
ern States  of  America.  When  it  fails  it  may  be  that 
the  seed  came  from  Algeria,  up  through  France, 
and  thus  was  in  nature  similar  to  the  Arizona  strain. 

Commenting  on  varieties  J.  M.  Westgate,  ag- 
rostologist  in  charge  of  alfalfa  investigation  for  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture,  says: 

Under  most  conditions,  especially  in  the  alfalfa  districts,  or- 
dinary alfalfa,  whether  from  American  or  European  grown  seed, 
gives  quite  as  satisfactory  results  as  any  of  the  special  varie- 
ties. In  certain  sections  of  the  country,  however,  special  varie- 
ties of  alfalfa  have  been  found  to  be  more  valuable  than  the  ordi- 
nary forms.  Of  these  the  Turkestan,  Arabian,  and  Peruvian 
varieties  have  been  introduced  through  the  Office  of  Foreign, 
Seed  and  Plant  Introduction  of  the  United  States  Department  of 
Agriculture. 

Turkestan  alfalfa  was  introduced  into  the  United  States  m 
1898,  and  has  since  been  tried  in  all  parts  of  the  country.  It 
has  been  found  to  be  superior  to  the  ordinary  alfalfa  in  only  lim- 
ited sections.  It  is  decidedly  inferior  in  the  humid  sections  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River,  but  has  given  somewhat  better  results 
than  the  ordinary  alfalfa  in  the  semi-arid  portions  of  the  Great 
Plains  and  in  the  Columbia  Basin.  In  addition  to  its  drought 


82  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

resistance,    it    is    also    hardier    than    many    of    the    commercial 
strains. 

Hardy  alfalfa. — There  have  appeared  during  the  past  years 
several  strains  of  alfalfa  which  are  characterized  by  their  hardi- 
ness and  general  ability  to  withstand  conditions  which  are 
rather  too  severe  for  the  best  productions  of  ordinary  alfalfa. 
There  is  some  variation  in  the  characteristics  of  these  alfalfas, 
which  may  be  grouped  under  this  general  head,  but  they  agree 
in  showing  a  considerable  diversity  in  the  color  of  the  flowers, 
which  varies  from  yellow  to  blue,  green,  and  various  shades  of 
violet  and  purple.  These  colors  are  often  clouded  with  a  smoky 
hue.  The  predominating  color  is  the  violet  of  the  ordinary 
alfalfa.  The  most  conspicuous  examples  of  hardy  alfalfa  are 
the  commercial  sand  lucerne  and  the  Grimm  alfalfa  of  Minnesota. 

The  sand  lucerne  has  been  grown  for  a  number  of  years  in 
this  country.  It  has  recently  been  found  to  be  adapted  to  the 
colder  and  drier  sections  of  the  country,  where  it  is  proving  the 
equal  of  any  of  the  alfalfas  under  test.  It  seems  particularly 
adapted  to  withstand  the  cold  winters  of  the  northern  states, 
where  ordinary  alfalfa  is  very  likely  to  winterkill.  It  is  not 
always  the  heaviest  yielder  in  sections  where  ordinary  alfalfa 
succeeds,  but  its  yields  are  always  satisfactory,  and  it  is  espe- 
cially recommended  for  conditions  where  ordinary  alfalfa  does 
not  succeed  by  reason  of  high  altitudes,  light  rainfall,  or  severe 
winters.  Its  chief  drawback  is  its  tendency  to  lodge. 

The  Grimm  alfalfa,  which  has  been  grown  for  many  years  in 
Minnesota  with  excellent  success,  was  brought  from  Wertheim, 
Province  of  Baden,  Germany,  in  1857,  by  a  German  farmer  named 
Grimm.  It  is  claimed  by  some  that  this  variety  has  attained  in- 
creased hardiness  since  its  introduction  into  Minnesota. 

Dry-land  alfalfa  is  the  name  usually  given  to  ordinary  alfalfa 
seed  produced  for  one  or  more  generations  in  the  semi-arid  sec- 
tions without  irrigation.  It  is  proving  somewhat  superior  to  ordi- 
nary alfalfa  under  semi-arid  conditions,  and  as  a  drought- 
resistant  alfalfa  is  about  equal  to  Turkestan  alfalfa  and  sand 
lucerne. 

Arabian  alfalfa  is  proving  of  special  value  in  the  southwest- 
ern portion  of  the  United  States,  where  the  winters  are  very  mild. 
It  is  characterized  by  its  large  leaflets  and  the  hairiness  of  the 
stems  and  leaves,  quick  recovery  after  cutting  and  very  rapid 
growth  during  the  growing  season,  and  also  by  its  ability  to 
grow  at  cooler  temperatures  than  ordinary  alfalfa.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  is  extremely  tender  to  actually  freezing  temperatures  and 
generally  winterkills  in  all  except  the  southern  and  southwestern 


VARIETIES    OP    ALFALFA.  83 

states.  Its  quick  recovery  after  cutting  and  its  longer  growing 
season  enable  several  more  cuttings  per  season  to  be  obtained 
than  are  possible  for  the  ordinary  alfalfa.  Unfortunately,  seed 
of  this  variety  is  not  yet  on  the  market. 

Peruvian  alfalfa  is  similar  to  Arabian  alfalfa,  and  is  likewise 
characterized  by  its  long  growing  season  and  lack  of  hardiness. 
It  grows  taller  than  Arabian  alfalfa,  but  the  stems  are  more 
woody.  The  seed  is  not  yet  on  the  market  in  this  country,  as  it 
is  not  grown  in  Peru  or  elsewhere  in  large  commercial  quanti- 
ties. 


HABIT  OF  GROWTH. 

Alfalfa  is  a  plant  with  marvelous  root  growth.  It 
is  not  unusual  to  find  alfalfa  roots  penetrating  6'.  8', 
or  even  12'  into  the  earth.  Very  much  deeper  roots 
than  these  are  reported.  It  is  even  said  that  alfalfa 
roots  have  been  found  that  were  30'  or  more  in 
length,  and  doubtless  this  is  true  in  favoring  soils. 
Alfalfa  is  a  desert  plant  by  nature.  All  desert 
plants  root  deep  and  root  far.  By  aid  of  these  deep 
roots  desert  plants  tide  over  long  drouths;  if  there 
is  no  moisture  in  the  top  soil  there  is  perhaps 
moisture  lower  down.  Alfalfa  is  a  wonderful  for- 
ager for  moisture  and  for  plant  food.  It  loves  deep, 
permeable  soils.  Because  its  roots  penetrate  so 
deeply  into  the  earth  it  does  not  thrive  when  the 
water  table  of  the  soil  is  too  near  the  surface. 
Permanent  water  ought  to  be  down  at  least  36"  for 
alfalfa  to  thrive  and  if  it  is  to  last  for  many  years 
even  more  depth  is  needed. 

Alfalfa  Not  a  Grass. — Alfalfa  is  in  no  sense  a 
grass.  It  has  no  communistic  ideas  whatever. 
Each  alfalfa  plant  is  a  vigorous,  hustling,  independ- 
ent individual.  It  pushes. its  roots  down,  sometimes 
in  one  large  tap  root,  sometimes  in  two  or  three  large 
roots.  It  fills  the  earth  with  its  hairy  feeding  roots. 
It  makes  a  branching  crown  of  many  stems.  The 
deeper  the  roots  can  penetrate  the  larger  the  crown 
will  be.  The  better  the  soil  for  alfalfa  the  fewer 

-    (84) 


ALFALFA  SIX  WEEKS  FROM  SEED,  SHOWING   ROOT  TUBERCLES. 
FROM  LIFE  BY  EDNA   HOPKINS. 


HABIT   OF   GROWTH.  85 

plants  will  stand  on  the  ground.  One  by  one  the 
weaker  plants  will  be  crowded  out  till  at  last  the 
strongest  plants  will  gain  their  normal  position 
when  there  will  be  a  plant  for  each  square  foot  of 
surface  in  very  deep,  rich  soils  of  the  West,  and 
these  big  plants  with  roots  as  large  as  one's  ankle; 
or  there  will  be  four  or  more  plants  to  the  square 
foot,  as  in  good  land  in  Nebraska  or  Kansas;  or 
there  will  be  a  plant  for  each  4",  as,  in  thinner, 
poorer  and  shallower  soils  in  Ohio  and  the  East. 
Alfalfa  roots  will  not  stand  close  together  in  any  al- 
falfa soil,  be  sure  of  that.  Nevertheless  it  is  good 
to  start  them  thick,  since  spare  alfalfa  plants  are 
better  than  weeds  in  the  field. 

Roots. — Alfalfa  roots  are  very  tough,  strong  and 
hard  to  cut.  Penetrating  the  soil  so  deeply  they 
make  drainage  channels  when  they  decay  and  thus 
make  the  soil  more  alive.  They  are  hard  to  plow. 
Once  cut  off  they  do  not  sprout  again,  though  the  top 
part  if  kept  in  moist  earth  will  send  out  new  fibers 
and  may  grow.  Alfalfa  is  not  hard  to  destroy  by 
plowing;  once  cut  off  and  cultivated  a  few  times  it 
dies. 

The  large  roots  are  not  the  ones  that  feed.  The 
small  fibrous  root  hairs  penetrate  each  tiny  crevice 
of  the  earth  and  absorb  the  soil  moisture  and  thus 
drink  in  their  food.  Going  to  great  depths  they  are 
able  to  bring  up  mineral  substances  that  may  have 
leached  down  there.  They  are  able  to  find  moisture 
when  the  surface  soil  is  parched  with  drouth. 

The  Bacteria.— Alfalfa  roots  absorb  all  that  is  in 


86  ALFALFA    FARMING  IN    AMERICA. 

the  soil  in  the  way  of  nourishment,  but  what  they 
find  is  not  enough  to  satisfy  the  ambitions  of  the 
alfalfa  plant.  Therefore  it  calls  to  its  aid  a  host  of 
tiny  slaves,  the  bacteria.  All  clovers  have  useful 
bacteria  that  live  upon  their  roots  and  gather  nitro- 
gen from  the  air.  Then  when  the  bacteria  die  the 
nitrogen  is  taken  up  by  the  plant  and  made  into  its 
tissue,  into  its  leaves,  stems  and  seeds.  These  bac- 
teria live  primarily  for  themselves,  fastening  to  the 
little  root  hairs.  Soon  these  little  root  hairs  push 
out  tissue  and  enclose  the  bacteria  in  fleshy  ex- 
crescences shaped  like  little  grapes  or  seeds.  These 
excrescences  we  call  tubercles  or  nodules.  They  are 
as  large  as  clover  seed  o<r  larger,  or  smaller.  They 
occur  singly  or  in  masses.  Sometimes  soils  seem 
naturally  full  of  these  bacteria  so  that  as  soon  as 
the  alfalfa  is  sown  they  come  on  the  roots.  When 
this  is  true  the  alfalfa  starts  off  with  great  vigor 
from  the  beginning  and  endures  in  thrift  nearly  al- 
ways. At  other  times  soils  are  found  to  be  barren 
of  these  bacteria  and  no  nodules  form  upon  the  roots. 
Then  the  alfalfa  seems  half  starved,  weak,  yellow, 
sickly. 

Where  Bacteria  Thrive. — In  some  soils  it  is  im- 
possible to  establish  these  bacteria,  by  artificial  trans- 
plantation or  otherwise.  When  this  is  true  alfalfa 
will  never  thrive.  It  may  live  for  a  time  by  aid  of 
manures  and  cultivation,  but  it  is  not  thrifty  and  it 
finally  succumbs.  It  cannot  withstand  the  onslaughts 
of  weeds  without  the  aid  of  these  bacteria  feeding  its 
roots.  They  get  their  nitrogen  and  thus  much  of 


HABIT   OF   GROWTH.  87 

their  growth  from  the  air.  Thus  the  soil  must  have 
air  in  it  or  they  cannot  live.  Waterlogged  soils  are 
barren  of  useful  bacteria.  Thus  well  drained  soils 
are  best  for  alfalfa.  The  bacteria  thrive  in  soils 
alkaline,  not  acid.  They  cannot  well  withstand  acid 
soils.  They  like  a  great  abundance  of  carbonate  of 
lime  in  the  soil.  It  has  not  been  shown  that  there 
is  ever  too  much  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil  for  the 
good  of  the  bacteria.  Of  other  common  western 
alkalies  there  may  be  a  superabundance  some- 
times of  sulphate  of  soda  and  other  more  harmful 
black  alkalies.  The  alfalfa  root  is  the  foundation 
of  the.  alfalfa,  plant.  When  it  is  vigorous  the  whole 
plant  thrives  and  resists  disease  and  disaster. 

Resisting  Temperature  Extremes. — The  alfalfa 
plant  is  hardy  against  cold.  One  could  almost  trace 
alfalfa  to'  its  original  home  by  its  very  habit  of  re- 
sisting extreme  heat  and  at  the  same  time  freezing 
cold.  Desert  countries  have  often  blistering  days 
and  freezing  nights.  Alfalfa  will  be  green  nearly  all 
winter  down  next  the  earth,  waiting  its  chance.  As 
soon  as  there  is  sun  and  warmth  of  spring 
it  begins  its  growth.  It  is  hardier  than  com- 
mon red  clover  and  earlier  to  start  in  spring. 
Different  strains  of  alfalfa  have  different  de- 
grees of  resistance  to  cold.  Cold  affects  the 
alfalfa  differently  at  various  stages  of  growth. 
When  a  warm  spell  in  early  spring  pushes  it  up  to 
a  swift,  succulent  growth  a  hard  freeze  will  lay  it 
all  over  as  though  it  were  killed.  It  may  indeed  be 
seriously  set  back  by  such  a  freeze  but  usually  it 


88  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN    AMERICA, 

straightens  up  again  as  soon  as  it  thaws  and  goes 
on  growing  in  a  few  days.  No  animals  should  ever 
be  let  tread  upon  it  when  it  is  frosted.  Indeed 
it  is  better  for  the  alfalfa  never  to  be  depastured. 

The  First  Growth.— The  first  growth  is  usually 
strongest,  perhaps  because  of  the  long  rest  it  has 
had  during  winter,  and  *  maybe  because  of 
more  abundant  soil  moisture  in  the  spring. 
In  Ohio  it  begins  to  bloom  in  late  May  or 
early  in  June.  In  more  southern  states  it 
blooms  earlier;  sometimes  in  Louisiana  it  will 
bloom  in  April,  or  even  earlier.  The  height  of 
alfalfa  at  blooming  time  varies  with  the  soil  and 
variety.  Ordinarily  it  is  about  30  to  40"  high.  In 
very  good  alfalfa  soils  with  abundant  irrigation  and 
good  suns,  it  may  be  much  higher.  The  writer  has 
grown  it  on  his  old  Utah  ranch  fields  so  tall  that  only 
the  heads  of  the  deer  were  visible  as  they  stood 
nearly  submerged  in  alfalfa  verdure.  In  some  soils 
where  roots  cannot  go  deep  it  may  not  get  higher 
than  24". 

Time  to  Cut. — When  bloom  begins  time  is  near  for 
alfalfa  harvest.  One  cannot  judge  by  state  of  bloom 
altogether  when  alfalfa  should  be  cut,  however. 
Perhaps  in  some  western  soils  it  does  not  matter 
when  it  is  cut ;  no  great  harm  results  from  cutting  it 
at  the  wrong  season.  In  all  eastern  regions,  how- 
ever, it  is  very  necessary  that  it  should  be  cut  at  the 
right  time.  Failure  to  know  when  to  cut  it  often  re- 
sults in  losing  altogether  the  thrift  of  the  next  cut- 
ting, and  maybe  losing  the  alfalfa  completely.  One 


HABIT   OF   GROWTH.  89 

cannot  judge  of  when  alfalfa  should  be  cut  by  the 
appearance  or  non-appearance  of  bloom.  Usually 
when  it  ought  to  be  cut  it  will  be  in  bloom.  The  only 
safe  indication,  however,  is  found  in  little  shoots 
or  buds  that  put  out  from  the  base  of  the  stems  near 
the  earth.  When  these  shoots  put  out,  like  little 
suckers,  ready  to  make  new  growth,  then  cut  the 
alfalfa  and  cut  it  immediately.  Cutting  must  not 
be  delayed  else  the  shoots  will  become  so  high  that 
they  will  be  cut  off  with  the  hay.  The  alfalfa  must 
not  be  cut  before  these  shoots  appear,  because  if 
this  is  done  the  alfalfa  will  not  start  off  promptly, 
and  when  it  does  start  will  be  singularly  deficient  in 
vigor  and  thrift.  The  reason  is  not  known,  but  the 
fact  is  often  observed  that  when  a  part  of  a  field  is 
mown  only  a  few  days  too  early  and  the  rest  of  the 
field  after  the  shoots  have  appeared  there  will  be 
a  difference  of  100%  or  more  in  the  yield  of  the 
next  crop  in  favor  of  that  cut  at  the  right  time. 

Further,  when  it  is  cut  too  early  it  often  becomes 
unthrifty,  rusted,  yellow,  sickly,  and  weeds  and 
grass  spring  up  and  choke  it.  Thousands  of  ruined 
fields  all  over  eastern  America  and  in  England  trace 
their  injury  to  having  been  cut  at  the  wrong  time. 
When  it  is  mown  off  too  soon  all  seems  to  go  wrong 
with  it.  It  may  be  that  in  some  way  the  sap  sours 
in  the  roots,  the  bacteria  die,  or  some  poison  is 
secreted.  Some  such  catastrophe  is  needed  to  ac- 
count for  the  behavior  of  the  plants. 

Cutting  for  Soiling  Weakens.— In  England  the 
writer  has  frequently  observed  that  the  habit  there 


90  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

of  cutting  alfalfa  green  and  using  it  to  soil  horses 
is  responsible  for  great  damage  to  the  fields.  At  the 
end  of  a  field  where  first  the  scythe  began  its  work 
on  immature  alfalfa,  it  was  so*  weakened  that  weeds 
and  grasses  came  in  thick  and  choked  it  out.  At  the 
other  end  of  the  field  would  often  be  good,  thrifty 
alfalfa,  because  it  had  not  been  cut  too  soon.  It  is 
wise  to  cut  as  early  as  one  can,  and  not  cut  before 
the  appearance  of  the  shoots,  because  thus  a  better 
quality  of  hay  is  secured. 

The  Next  Cutting. — Alfalfa  cut  at  the  right  time 
makes  astonishing  recovery.  The  hay  raked  up,  the 
field  looks  brown  and  bare  for  a  few  hours.  Then 
comes  the  first  tinge  of  green.  In  a  day  it  is  plainly 
to  be  seen.  In  two  days  it  is  green  again.  In  a 
week  no  one  should  set  foot  upon  it,  and  in  four  or 
five  weeks  it  is  ready  to  cut  again.  Times  vary,  of 
course,  but  in  Ohio  if  the  first  crop  comes  off  about 
June  1,  the  next  crop  will  be  due  about  July  1  to  4. 
The  same  rule  applies  to  the  second  cutting.  It 
must  not  be  taken  away  before  the  buds  appear. 
The  rule  of  waiting  till  new  shoots  appear  on  the 
bases  of  the  stems  applies  to  each  cutting.  As  the 
summer  gets  older  and  dryer  longer  times  elapses 
between  the  various  cuttings.  The  second  cutting 
will  take  about  40  to  45  days  to  mature,  and  the 
third  cutting  about  the  same  time.  At  no  time  can 
one  disregard  the  rule  as  to  cutting  when  the  shoots 
have  appeared.  Never  cut  alfalfa  before  these  shoots 
come.  Never  delay  cutting  many  days  after  they 
appear. 


HABIT   OF  GROWTH.  91 

Cutting  Promotes  Thrift. — It  is  a  curious  fact 
that  alfalfa  needs  to  be  cut  in  order  to  keep  in  thrift. 
This  is  especially  true  in  the  region  east  of  the 
Missouri  River.  Doubtless  it  is  in  part  an  acquired 
habit,  speaking  strikingly  of  the  length  of  years  that 
our  alfalfa  has  been  sown  and  mown  by  man.  In 
Ohio,  for  example,  one  will  sometimes  put  down  a 
fence  through  a  young  alfalfa  field.  Afterward  he 
cannot  mow  quite  close  to  the  fence  and  there  will 
be  corners  where  the  alfalfa  remains  uncut.  It  is 
then  a  continual  object  lesson  of  the  effect  of  neglect, 
since  the  uncut  alfalfa  becomes  unthrifty,  a  prey  to 
leaf  fungus  and  other  diseases.  As  the  season  goes 
on  the  cut  alfalfa  re-tains  its  thrift  and  vigor;  the 
neglected  gets  more  and  more  unthrifty.  At  last 
weeds  and  grass  overpower  it  and  in  a  few  years 
nearly  every  plant  has  disappeared,  while  the  plants 
regularly  cut  alongside  have  quite  retained  their 
pristine  vigor. 

Late  Mowing  Harmful. — In  warm  countries  alfalfa 
is  always  green  and  growing,  so  there  is  moisture 
enough,  yet  it  has  its  periods  of  partial  rest  and  its 
times  of  greatest  vigor.  In  the  arid  and  irrigated 
west  it  seems  to  do  no  injury  to  -the  alfalfa  to  mow 
it  down  late  in  the  season,  or  to  pasture  it  close  in 
the  fall.  In  the  eastern  states,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  is  distinctly  hurtful  to  alfalfa  to  cut  it  down  so 
late  that  it  will  not  go  into  winter  with  a  good 
growth  covering  it  to  hold  the  snow  and  protect  the 
crowns.  Always  there  should  be  a  growth  of  at 
least  a  foot  of  alfalfa  when  killing  f ro-st  comes.  This 


92  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

should  not  be  depastured ;  indeed,  after  killing  frost 
no  animal  should  be  permitted  to  set  foot  in  the 
alfalfa  field.  The  difference  in  thrift  and  production 
between  late  mown  alfalfa  and  that  given  fair  treat- 
ment is  very  marked  indeed.  Many  plants  mown 
off  in  October  will  die  altogether  during  the  follow- 
ing winter.  Thus  when  one  means  to  plow  the  field, 
it  is  wise  to  mow  it  as  late  as  convenient,  since  he 
gets  quite  a  little  hay  from  this  fourth  or  fifth  cut- 
ting, and  at  the  same  time  weakens  his  alfalfa  so 
that  it  plows  easier.  Very  great  injury  in  the  humid 
regions  has  unknowingly  been  done  the  alfalfa  by 
this  very  ignorance  of  its  nature  that  led  to  its  being 
mown  late  or  depastured  until  winter. 

Danger  from  Treading. — In  dry  countries  it  seems 
to  do  little  injury  to  alfalfa  to  let  animals  run  on  it 
all  winter,  even  though  they  tread  it  down  into  the 
dust.  In  all  the  region  of  America  lying  east  of  tho 
Missouri  River  it  is  most  harmful  to  alfalfa  to  tread 
upon  it  in  winter,  either  by  the  feet  of  men  or  ani- 
mals, or  by  wagons  going  over  it.  The  line  of  direc- 
tion of  a  farm  wagon  going  across  a  field  can  often 
be  distinctly  traced  next  spring  by  the  two  streaks 
of  dead  alfalfa  plants. 

An  alfalfa  field  should  be  a  sacred  place.  Its  gates 
should  be  closed  and  locked  in  September  and  not  re- 
opened till  May  at  the  earliest,  probably  not  till  the 
first  day  of  June,  though  these  dates  will  of  course 
be  dependent  on  -the  latitude,  now  having  in  mind 
the  climate  of  about  parallel  of  latitude  40. 

Hardiness  of  the  Plant. — Alfalfa  then  is  one  of 


HABIT   OF   GROWTH.  93 

the  hardiest  plants  in  the  world  when  exposed  to 
certain  trials  and  dangers.  Drouths  have  no  terrors 
for  it.  Cold  has  no  terrors  for  it.  Heat  has  no  ter- 
rors for  alfalfa.  It  dies,  if  it  dies  at  all,  of  pneu- 
monia brought  on  by  wet  feet  in  winter  time,  by 
cancer  brought  on  by  undrained  soils  and  floods  of 
rains  in  summer  time ;  it  dies  from  fungus  troubles 
brought  on  by  exposure  to  too  much  wet  and  by  not 
having  the  fungus-affected  tops  cut  away  at  proper 
time;  or  it  dies  because  its  allies,  the  bacteria,  be- 
come diseased  and  forsake  it.  It  is  a  Mexican,  living 
by  means  of  the  hot  peppers  it  consumes,  the  pep- 
per to  the  alfalfa  plant  being  carbonate  of  lime. 
Given  these  things,  dry  soil  with  air  in  it  and  alka- 
line with  carbonate  of  lime,  not  sour;  keep  animals 
off  it  in  cold  weather,  cut  it  three  times  a  year,  keep 
grasses  from  choking  it,  and  alfalfa  will  endure  in 
almost  any  land  for  half  a  century. 

Ice  Will  Kill. — There  is  one  thing  that  may  hap- 
pen, however,  that  no  art  of  man  can  circumvent; 
that  is  ice  in  winter.  There  is  a  danger  line  along 
through  Minnesota  and  parts  -of  Wisconsin,  probably 
extending  through  Michigan,  where  the  warmth  of 
spring  comes  before  the  cold  of  winter  is  out  of 
the  earth.  Warm  days  thaw  the  snow,  it  makes  a 
film  of  water  over  the  earth;  this  freezes  hard  and 
the  ground  is  locked  in  icy  fetters.  This  may  kill 
the  alfalfa  dead.  It  may  not  happen  more  than  once 
in  several  years.  When  it  has  happened  the  only 
thing  to  be  done  is  to  grin  and  bear  it,  plow  the 
field,  plant  to  corn  or  potatoes  and  re-seed  the  next 
year.  Or  it  may  be  at  once  resown  the  same  season. 


94  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Life  of  a  Field. — What  then  is  the  profitable 
duration  of  an  alfalfa  field?  In  California,  in  some 
of  the  dry  valleys  with  loose  subsoil,  it  may  ap- 
parently endure  for  a  century.  The  writer  has 
walked  over  an  alfalfa  field  in  Texas  that  was  40 
years  old ;  in  Kansas  perhaps  10  years,  in  Nebraska 
maybe  the  same,  or  nearly  as  long ;  in  Iowa  probably 
four  to  six  years.  In  Ohio  alfalfa  will  endure  for 
10  years  on  the  best  drained  land,  and  maybe  for 
much  longer  time,  yet  the  greatest  profit  is  found  in 
keeping  it  only  while  it  is  at  its  maximum  efficiency, 
and  that  is  about  four  years.  Why  expect  or  care  to 
have  it  last  forever?  Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  easiest 
established  of  clovers,  nor  is  it  costly  to  seed.  It 
powerfully  enriches  the  soil.  Why  then  care  to 
have  it  endure  forever?  It  is  wiser  to  use  it  only 
while  in  its  full  vigor,  then  as  disaster  overtakes 
it  and  one  plant  here,  another  there,  dies  out,  leav- 
ing the  stand  thin,  to  plow  it  and  re-seed  after  tak- 
ing off  a  crop  or  two  of  grain  or  roots,  or  whatever 
is  required. 

In  Maryland  there  is  in  Harford  county  a  type 
of  soil  with  such  acid  subsoil  that  alfalfa  will  not 
last  more  than  a  year  or  two  in  it.  Yet  some  dairy- 
men have  learned  that  it  pays  better  to  grow  alfalfa 
than  any  other  crop,  leaving  it  stand  only  one  year, 
then  plowing  and  at  once  re-seeding.  The  practice 
is  to  sow  in  August,  letting  the  alfalfa  grow  uncut 
that  fall,  then  harvesting  a  good  crop  in  late  May, 
another  in  late  June,  a  third  crop  about  the  first  of 
August,  at  once  plowing  and  thoroughly  preparing 


HABIT   OF  GROWTH.  95 

the  land  and  re-seeding.  Liberal  fertilizing  is  done 
each  year  and  thus  quite  heavy  crops  of  hay  are 
grown,  although  it  has  been  learned  that  the  alfalfa 
will  not  go  through  a  second  winter,  the  roots  de- 
caying about  6"  below  the  surface.  Doubtless  the 
acidity  of  the  subsoil  is  responsible  in  large  measure 
for  this  result.  If  large  amounts  of  lime  could  be 
applied  to  the  surface  just  before  plowing  and  thus 
turned  under  in  direct  contact  with  the  sour  sub- 
soil, in  time  even  this  land  could  be  made  to  carry 
alfalfa  more  than  one  year.  It  is  interesting  and 
useful,  however,  to  know  that  the  alfalfa  pays  well 
to  be  resown  each  year  when  this  is  necessary. 

Essentials  in  Culture. — Alfalfa  is  no  Laodicean. 
When  it  is  healthy  it  is  one  of  the  happiest  plants 
in  the  world',  and  when  diseased  one  of  the  feeblest 
and  most  miserable.  Fortunately  making  it  healthy 
is  pretty  easy;  it  speaks  in  no  uncertain  tones  and 
makes  its  wants  known.  The  writer  frequently  takes 
a  walk  to  the  village  aJong  an  old  railway  embank- 
ment, made  in  large  part  from  limestone  gravel,  sur- 
faced with  that  and  with  limestone  screenings  from 
the  crusher.  The  clay  in  it  is  of  limestone  formation. 
It  could  not  be  said  that  this  soil  was  exceptional  in 
any  way  except  that  it  is  thoroughly  drained,  and 
has  in  it  much  lime.  Scattered  alfalfa  plants  grow 
along  this  embankment.  For  years  they  have  grown 
and  seeded  there.  They  are  beautifully  green  and 
vigorous  plants  and  they  never  seem  to  get  old.  The 
writer,  wandering  down  the  railway  line  reflects, 
"Why,  here  these  plants  in  themselves  tell  all  that 


96  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

one  needs  to  know  about  alfalfa  growing.  Just  give 
drainage  enough,  give  air  enough  in  the  soil,  give 
lime  enough,  give  seed,  and  alfalfa  is  the  surest 
plant  to  grow  there  is."  And  this  is  true'.  Only 
these  simple  things  need  be  known :  fo  make  the  land 
dry,  to  make  the  land  sweet  with  lime,  or  a  little 
more  than  sweet,  fairly  alkaline  with  lime,  then  to 
make  it  fertile  and  sow  good  seed  with  faith  and 
inoculation. 

What  agricultural  joys  will  follow  such  simple 
doings  'as  these!  What  beautifying  of  landscapes, 
what  riches  in  animal  life,  what  wealth  of  farms  and 
homes  and  villages !  Upon  such  simple  fundamentals 
do  great  things  rest. 


THE  SEED-BEARING  HABIT. 

Alfalfa  left  alone  will  bloom  and  produce  seed  on 
the  first  crop.  If  no  fungus  troubles  its  leaves  it 
will  continue  to  grow,  bloom  and  produce  seed  all 
summer.  In  Utah  the  writer  has  seen  bushes  of 
alfalfa  more  than  6'  high,  covered  nearly  all  over 
with  bloom  and  seed.  In  all  humid  regions  there 
will  be  leaf  diseases  that  will  make  such  condition 
of  growth  impossible. 

Fertilisation. — The  alfalfa  flower  is  probably  in- 
capable of  self-fertilization  without  the  aid  of  bees 
or  other  insects.  F.  Eoberts  and  Geo.  F.  Freeman, 
of  the  Kansas  experiment  station  at  Manhattan, 
have  made  many  experiments  in  alfalfa  breeding. 
Briefly,  in  planting  a  nursery  of  alfalfa  plants, 
separated  from  each  other  about  18",  very  great 
variation  was  observed.  One  field  was  planted  from 
seed  gathered  in  Montana,  the  other  from  seed  of 
so-called  Turkestan  alfalfa.  The  plants  in  each 
group  varied  remarkably  in  leaf  and  hardiness  and 
habit  of  growth.  In  order  to  propagate  the  desirable 
types,  study  of  the  alfalfa  flower  was  made,  with 
its  habit  of  fertilization.  The  following  study  or 
the  alfalfa  blossom  is  quoted  from  Bulletin  151  of 
the  Kansas  agricultural  experiment  station : 

The  flower  of  alfalfa  is  rather  an  advantageous  one  for  hand- 
pollinating  purposes.  The  two  wings  have  projecting  processes 
which  overlap,  and  assist  in  holding  down  the  curved,  spring- 
like column  formed  by.  the  united  group  of  stamens  which  en- 

(97) 


98  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

close  the  pistil.  A  set  of  interlocking  processes  for  the  keel 
further  assist  in  forming  this  spring-trap  arrangement.  When 
an  insect  of  sufficient  weight  alights  upon  the  keel,  it  depresses 
the  latter,  together  with  the  enclosing  wing  petals;  the  trigger- 
like  processes  are  pushed  down  past  the  upcurved  column  of  the 
pistil  and  stamens,  releasing  them,  and  allowing  the  whole  col- 
umn to  spring  up  with  considerable  explosive  force  against  the 
erect  standard.  At  the  time  of  pollination  the  style  with  the 
stigma  has  grown  up  above  the  stamens,  and  when  released  the 
stigma  precedes  the  stamens,  striking  the  insect's  body  first,  in 
case  the  latter  rests  upon  the  keel,  bearing  its  deposit  of  pollen 
brought  from  another  flower.  The  burst  anthers  in  turn  dust  off 
a  new  deposit  of  pollen  as  they  are  driven  past  the  insect,  which 
is  thus  equipped  with  a  fresh  supply  of  pollen  to  become  avail- 
able for  the  next  flower.  Sometimes  the  shaking  of  the  flower 
stems  by  the  wind,  or  by  the  pelting  of  rain,  many  accomplish 
the  same  result.  Self-fertilization  may  be  secured  also  by  visits 
of  insects  not  yet  loaded  with  pollen,  which  may,  by  setting  off 
the  explosive  mechanism,  bring  about  self-pollination.  Since  the 
pollen  is  shed  before  the  stamen-pistil  column  is  released,  it 
happens  that  the  stigma  is  already  partly  covered  with  pollen. 
Nevertheless,  self-fertilization  seems  to  occur  but  seldom  in  en- 
closed plants  protected  from  insect  visits. 

The  explosive  mechanism  of  the  alfalfa  flower  has  long 
been  known,  having  been  discovered  as  early  as  1832  by  A.  P. 
De  Candolle. 

In  1894,  Burkill  found  it  impossible  to  make  seeds  set  in  the 
unexploded  flower,  even  though  pollen  were  in  contact  with  the 
stigma.  He  considers  this  fact  to  be  due  to  the  circumstance 
that  the  stigma  does  not  become  receptive  to  the  pollen  until  its 
cells  are  injured  by  violent  contact  with  some  object.  In  proof 
he  adduces  the  fact  that  he  had  caused  unexploded  flowers  to 
set  seed  by  pinching  the  stigma,  by  cutting  off  the  tip  of  the  keel 
or  by  rubbing  the  stigma  with  a  stiff  brush.  It  appears,  there- 
fore, probable  that  insects  secure  the  fertilization  of  alfalfa  flow- 
ers largely  by  accidental  injury  to  the  stigma  while  endeavoring 
to  cause  the  proboscis  to  enter;  or  else  by  exploding  the  flowers 
and  causing  the  stigma  to  be  dashed  against  the  standard,  the 
necessary  amount  of  injury  may  be  accomplished  to  enable  the 
pollen  to  become  effective,  in  which  case  it  may  either  be  the 
already  present  pollen  of  the  same  flower,  or  foreign  pollen 
brought  by  the  insect  that  is  utilized. 

Thus  it  is  plain  that  insects  play  a  large  part  in 


THE   SEED-BEARING  HABIT.  99 

the  fertilization  of  alfalfa  blooms.  The  honey  bee 
helps,  no  doubt,  where  it  is  plentiful,  and  also  many 
other  sorts  of  insects  help — butterflies,  millers,  ants 
and  various  small  insects  that  swarm  in  alfalfa 
meadows.  Whether  honey  bees  are  useful  in  fer- 
tilizing1 alfalfa  blooms  is  at  present  a  disputed  point, 
many  men  affirming  that  they  secured  as  large  crops 
of  alfalfa  seed  before  bees  were  introduced  into  their 
regions  as  they  do  since.  However  this  may  be,  it 
is  certain  that  bees  pay  large  profits  in  the  western 
alfalfa-growing  states.  Alfalfa  honey  is  of  excellent 
quality  and  it  is  most  doubtful  if  the  bees  ever 
gather  any  of  it  without  unwittingly  assisting  in  the 
fertilization  of  the  alfalfa  flower. 

Where  Seed  is  Grown. — The  alfalfa  plant  has 
whims  and  peculiarities  not  well  understood.  Parts 
of  California  produce  seed,  other  parts  are  said  to 
make  too  little  seed  to  be  worth  troubling  with. 
Nevada  is  a  good  seed-producing  region,  perhaps 
because  of  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  state.  Utah 
produces  much  seed  of  high  quality  and  Utah  is  a 
dry  land.  Colorado  produces  good  seed,  so  does 
Montana  in  lesser  amounts.  The  Dakotas  produce 
some  seed  and  large  amounts  are  threshed  in 
Nebraska  and  Kansas.  East  of  the  Missouri  Eiver 
little  seed  is  grown;  east  of  the  Mississippi  Eiver 
hardly  any  alfalfa  seed  is  saved.  Stray  plants  in 
Ohio,  on  dry  banks  or  along  roadsides  will  load 
themselves  with  seed,  while  fields  saved  for  the  seed 
make  not  enough  to  be  worth  considering.  Texas 
produces  a  good  deal  of  seed.  It  has  been  found 


100  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

that  most  seed  is  produced  during  fairly  dry  years. 
The  alfalfa  grown  on  high,  dry  land  without  irriga- 
tion seeds  best.  Large  crops  are  grown  by  irriga- 
tion on  dry  lands,  but  the  irrigation  has  to  be  very 
carefully  done  not  to  water  the  alfalfa  too  much. 
When  alfalfa  is  growing  rapidly  and  has  abundant 
moisture,  for  some  reason  not  well  understood  it 
does  not  produce  seed;  the  blooms  fall  and  growth 
continues.  On  the  other  hand,  when  moisture  is 
deficient  and  conditions  are  much  less  favorable 
seed  sets  abundantly.  It  is  perhaps  the  old  trick  of 
Dame  Nature  making  abundant  provision  against 
the  extermination  of  any  of  her  children  by  provid- 
ing bloom  and  fruit  and  seed  whenever  the  exist- 
ence of  the  mother  is  attacked. 

Attempts  to  grow  alfalfa  seed  in  any  state  east  of 
the  Missouri  Eiver  is  apt  to  result  in  much  disap- 
pointment. The  humid  climate,  the  lack  perhaps 
of  suitable  insects  to  fertilize,  and  the  attacks  of 
rust  that  affects  the  leaves  make  it  a  very  uncertain 
crop.  There  are  times,  however,  during  very  dry 
seasons,  when  thin  stands  of  alfalfa  in  the  eastern 
states  will  mature  profitable  crops  of  seed. 


GETTING  A  STAND  OF  ALFALFA. 

When  this  is  read  it  may  be  forgotten  that  the 
writer  for  many  years  has  been  a  contributor  to 
"THE  BKEEDER'S  GAZETTE/'  an  American  agricul- 
tural newspaper.  In  his  work  for  THE^GAZETTE  he 
has  answered  hundreds  of  alfalfa  inquiries.  Some 
of  these  have  been  put  in  such  a  way  that  they  re- 
vealed an  intelligent  knowledge  of  the  subject  in  the 
inquirers,  but  very  many  of  these  questions  are  mad- 
dening in  the  fact  that  they  show  so  plainly  that 
the  seeker  for  information  has  almost  no  knowledge 
of  his  own  soil  or  -of  any  fundamental  principles 
governing  soil  fertility  or  plant  growth.  For  ex- 
ample, here  is  a  sample  question;  many  like  it  are 
received  every  season:  "I  wish  to  sow  some  alfalfa. 
My  land  is  lightly  rolling  and  slopes  to  the  west.  It 
was  sown  in  oats  in  1906,  was  in  corn  in  1907. " 

Simply  that  and  nothing  more!  What  an  index 
of  the  state  of  agriculture  in  the  United  States  in 
this  year  of  grace  1909!  Growing  alfalfa  is  not  a 
question  of  seed  or  sowing.  Sow  almost  any  sort  of 
alfalfa  seed,  sow  at  any  time  of  moon  or  in  almost 
any  sort  of  way  and  you  will  succeed,  if — here  is  the 
fatal  "if" — your  soil  is  right.  Sow  with  the  great- 
est labor  and  pains,  make  incredible  effort  at 
preparation  and  you  will  fail,  if  your  soil  is  wrong. 
Alfalfa  growing  is  a  soil  question.  Get  the  soil 
right  and  it  is  difficult  to  fail.  It  is  easier  to  get  a 
stand  of  alfalfa  than  of  most  common  farm  crops. 


(101) 


102  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

There  is  no  mystery  about  getting  a  stand  of  alfalfa. 
To  make  that  stand  succeed  once  you  get  it,  there's 
the  rub,  especially  in  the  eastern  states. 

Drainage. — What  are  the  requirements  of  the 
alfalfa  plant  a,s  regards  soil? 

First,  it  likes  soil  to  be  dry,  dry  even  in  a  wet 
time.  That  is,  it  ought  to  be  a  soil  that  will  not  fill 
up  with  water  and  remain  waterlogged  for  many 
days.  Alfalfa  loves  moisture  too,  but  it  must  have 
moisture  and  air  in  the  soil  at  the  same  time.  Thus 
it  likes  well  drained  loams,  alluvial  .soil  along  rivers 
or  creeks  (such  lands  are  usually  the  best  drained) 
or  even  gravelly  soils,  so  they  have  also  fertility.  If 
naturally  well  drained  lands  are  not  on  your  farm 
then  you  can  make  the  land  dry  with  tiles.  It  is 
entirely  practicable  to  drain  land  naturally  wet  and 
"crawfishy"  with  tiles  so  'that  it  will  grow  alfalfa 
well.  The  writer  has  tested  this  on  Woodland  Farm 
where  with  his  brothers  he  has  laid  many  miles  of 
tile  underdrains.  In  truth  not  much  of  Woodland 
Farm  would  grow  alfalfa  before  it  was  under- 
drained.  Now  about  the  heaviest  and  surest  crops 
grow  on  land  once  too  wet  for  alfalfa  to  grow  at  all. 

Drainage,  that  is  the  very  first  essential  in  alfalfa 
culture.  Let  that  truth  sink  in  deep.  Do  not  sow  al- 
falfa on  a  marsh,  nor  on  a  waterlogged  clay  that 
will  -stand  full  of  water  half  the  year.  An  occasional 
submergence  by  the  overflowing  of  a  stream  may  do 
no  harm,  will  do  no  harm  if  the  submergence  comes 
in  cold  weather,  or  if  the  water  is  moving.  An  over- 
flow of  even  a  week's  duration,  if  the  water  is  mov- 


GETTING   A   STAND   OF   ALFALFA.  103 

ing  swiftly,  will  probably  do  no  harm.  Even  a  few 
hours  of  stagnant  water  lying  over  the  land  in  hot 
weather  may  kill  the  alfalfa.  Drain.  Drain  deep. 
Drain  thoroughly.  Alfalfa  roots  are  living  things. 
Alfalfa  bacteria  are  probably  destroyed  by  being 
under  water  for  a  long  time. 

Tiling. — In  laying  tiles  where  alfalfa  may  some 
day  be  sown  see  that  they  are  laid  as  deep  as  the 
nature  of  the  soil  will  permit.  Soils  differ  much  in 
this  respect;  sometimes  the  subsoil  is  so  dense  and 
impervious  that  water  cannot  well  penetrate  it.  In 
such  case  it  is  useless  to  lay  tiles  deep  in  it.  They 
will  not  drain  the  land  any  deeper  if  laid  in  the  hard- 
pan  than  if  laid  just  on  its  surface.  Usually,  how- 
ever, one  can  lay  tiles  in  clay  loams  and  "joint 
clays"  much  deeper  than  he  has  been  accustomed  to 
laying  them.  The  extra  depth  pays  largely.  Tiles 
draw  water  from  a  much  greater  distance  when  laid 
deep,  and  plants  thrive  in  proportion  as  the  perma- 
nent water  table  is  lowered.  If  the  water  level  in 
the  soil  never  rises  above  a  depth  of  10'  from  the 
surface  all  the  better.  Alfalfa  roots  will  readily 
penetrate  that  distance.  Tiles  cannot  be  laid  deeper 
than  4'  or  5'  with  economy,  owing  to  labor  cost; 
if  they  could,  and  the  soil  were  permeable  enough 
to  let  them  operate  to  their  full  depth,  it  would  be 
all  the  better.  On  Woodland  Farm  the  rule  is  to 
lay  no  tiles  at  a  less  depth  than  36"  and  the  standard 
depth  where  soil  is  right  and  outlet  can  be  had  is 
48".  In  early  days  many  drains  Wiere  laid  too 
shallow;  these  are  often  taken  up  and  laid  deeper. 


104  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Deficiency  in  Soil. — -Curiously  enough  there  are 
many-  well  drained  soils  in  the  eastern  part  of  the 
United  States  that  are  admirably  adapted  to  being 
penetrated  by  alfalfa  roots,  yet  on  which  alfalfa  does 
not  naturally  grow  well,  if  at  all.  Such  soils  often 
are  loose,  pervious,  easily  penetrated  by  roots.  They 
may  be  of  clayey  lo<am  order,  or  have  sandy  or 
gravelly  nature.  On  them  perhaps  grow  chestnut 
trees.  Chestnut  soils  ought  usually  to  be  good  al- 
falfa soils.  Naturally  they  are  not.  By  right  treat- 
ment they  may  be  made  good.  The  clue  to  their 
reclamation  is  lime. 

Soil  a  Living  Thing.— A.  soil  is  a  living,  drink- 
ing, breathing  thing.  If  it  is  truly  alive  it  has  in  it 
much  air,  sufficient  water,  but  that  held  in  suspen- 
sion 'as  film  water  only  in  the  earth,  not  in  satura- 
tion. That  is,  there  is  a  film  of  water  about  each 
little  grain  of  sand,  between  each  two  grains  of  soil, 
and  between  the  layers  of  water  is  air.  The  living 
soil  has  in  it  humus,  vegetable  matter,  in  greater  or 
less  amounts.  It  has  in  it  bacteria  in  immense  num- 
bers. It  is  alive  with  bacteria.  These  bacteria  are 
of  various  kinds  and  orders.  Some  are  engaged  in 
destroying  humus.  They  break  it  down  and  from 
the  nitrogen  in  the  humus  make  soluble  nitrates. 
These  the  plants  can  absorb  through  their  rootlets. 
Some  of  these  bacteria  are  able  to  assimilate  the 
free  nitrogen  of  the  air  and  make  it  available  for 
plants  growing  with  roots  in  that  soil.  These  bac- 
teria exist  in  all  soils  probably  where  there  is 
plenty  of  humus  decaying.  Other  bacteria  there  are 


GETTING   A   STAND    OF    ALFALFA.  105 

that  live  on  the  roots  of  the  clover  and  other  le- 
guminous plants.  Alfalfa  has  its  own  special' bac- 
teria that  enables  it  to  appropriate  the  free  nitrogen 
of  the  air.  Alfalfa  will  not  thrive,  nor  even  live 
very  long,  without  these  bacteria  helping  it.  It  has 
become  used  to  them,  it  depends  upon  them  much 
as  the  southern  people  depended  upon  slave  labor 
in  days  gone  by.  And  alfalfa-promoting  bacteria 
will  not  live  in  all  soils.  In  some  soils  they  are 
found  in  myriads  after  alfalfa  has  grown  there  for 
a  little  time,  as  its  near  relatives  melilotus  or  bur 
clover.  What  sort  of  soils  do  we  find  these  bacteria 
to  thrive  best  in  when  nature  has  planted  them,  un- 
helped  by  man!  What  sort  of  soils  are  they  that 
produce  alfalfa  spontaneously  ?  Let  us  go  afield. 

Natural  Seeding  of  Alfalfa. — The  nearest  to 
wild  alfalfa  that  is  found  in  America  perhaps  is  in 
Montana,  along  the  Yellowstone  Eiver.  There  the 
writer  has  seen  fields  sown  to  timothy  grass  invaded 
by  the  alfalfa  plant  and  gradually  crowded  out  till 
at  last  there  was  a  fine  stand  of  luxuriant  alfalfa  and 
that  without  the  sowing  of  one  alfalfa  seed.  Thus 
it  happened:  the  canal  water  floated  down  a  few 
seed  and  deposited  them  near  the  top  of  the  grass 
field.  They  grew  and  established  themselves  as 
lusty  alfalfa  plants.  After  the  timothy  grass  was 
mown  off  the  alfalfa  went  to  seed  and  scattered  a 
circle  of  self-sown  alfalfa  seeds  about  the  mother 
plant.  Next  year  there  were  many  alfalfa  plants 
where  there  had  been  only  one,  and  these  in  turn 
went  to  seed.  The  end  was  a  well  set  alfalfa  field, 


106  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

with  the  timothy  grass  practically  crowded  out.  And 
on  one  farm  of  160  acres  near  this  spot,  at  a  place 
close  to  Billings,  Mont.,  a  farmer  sold  his  one  year 's 
cutting  of  alfalfa  hay,  amounting  to  1,000  tons. 
Now,  what  was  the  nature  of  that  soil!  And  what 
of  the  climate! 

First,  the  climate  did  not  have  very  much  to  do 
with  it.  At  least  there  are  thousands  of  counties 
in  the  United  States  with  as  good  climate  for  alfalfa 
growing  as  this  special  one,  though  it  is  true  that 
there  is  plenty  of  sun  and  heat  in  summer, 
but  an  extraordinarily  cold  winter  climate.  Water 
for  irrigation  was  in  abundant  supply  and  never 
fear  of  rain  to  cause  blight  or  spoil  haying.  The 
soil,  then!  This  is  a  semi-arid  region  and  the  soils 
have  not  for  thousands  of  years  been  leached  by 
excessive  rains.  Thus  they  are  filled  with  all  sorts 
of  mineral  salts.  They  are  alkaline  soils;  that  is, 
filled  with  salts  of  lime,  potash,  magnesia  and 
sodium.  Some  of  these  salts  are  injurious  to  vegeta- 
tion, at  least  When  present  in  excess;  others  are 
favorable. 

The  one  salt  in  this  soil  that  especially  favors 
alfalfa  is  carbonate  -of  lime.  This  exists  in  great 
amounts  in  this  soil,  probably  at  least  1%%  of  this 
substance  being  present.  One  and  one-half  pounds 
of  carbonate  of  lime  to  each  hundred  pounds  of  soil ! 
How  much  would  that  mean  in  an  acre!  Taking 
only  the  top  foot  of  s-oil  it  would  amount  to  about  30 
tons  of  carbonate  of  lime  present.  That  lime  is 
doing  something  in  that  soil;  can  we  discover  what! 


I1BH 


CARBONATE  OF  LIME. 

The  most  vital  fact  is  one  that  we  cannot  now  ex- 
plain: the  carbonate  of  lime  makes  the  nitrifying 
bacteria  thrive.  They  cannot  seem  to  exist  with- 
out it.  Then  it  keeps  the  alfalfa  in  good  health. 
Why  should  alfalfa  OT  any  other  plant  become  sick! 
We  think  we  know  that  plants  give  off  certain  toxic 
principles,  poisonous  to  themselves.  That  is,  the 
alfalfa  roots  exhale  perhaps  a  poison  that  is  in- 
jurious to  itself  and  to  other  alfalfa  roots.  When 
there  is  much  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil  this 
poisonous  principle  is  in  some  way  neutralized.  Thus 
the  alfalfa  keeps  in  health  and  vigor  and  goes  right 
on  performing  its  miracles.  This  helps  explain 
some  things  that  have  puzzled  the  wisest  of  us. 
Many  men  have  had  good,  vigorous  stands  of  alfalfa 
well  fed  with  mineral  fertilizers  and  with  stable 
manures,  and  all  at  once  with  no  warning  whatever 
it  would  all  die  as  though  stricken  with  plague.  This 
has  happened  repeatedly  in  many  eastern  and  south- 
ern states.  Never,  so  far  as  the  writer  has  been  able 
to  learn,  has  it*  happened  where  the  alfalfa  was 
growing  on  a  soil  even  fairly  well  supplied  with 
carbonate  of  lime. 

Carbonate  of  lime,  we  may  as  well  fairly  confess, 
is  the  very  keynote  of  successful  alfalfa  culture. 
Drainage  and  carbonate  of  lime  are  the  two  essen- 

(107) 


108  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

tial  things.    All  the  rest  that  can  be  added  will  help ; 
these  two  are  indispensable. 

Other  Functions  of  Lime. — What  other  func- 
tions besides  making  the  soil  habitable  for  good  and 
useful  bacteria  does  the  carbonate  of  lime  have  in 
the  soil! 

It  seems  the  very  foundation  of  fertility  itself. 
The  presence  of  much  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil 
seems  necessary  to  the  formation  of  black  humus. 
In  nature  soils  rich  in  lime  become  black  loams. 
Some  good  illustrations  of  this  truth  are  seen  in  two 
instance's.  In  Mississippi  and  Alabama  are  soils 
based  on  decaying  limestone,  the  so-called  "  black- 
prairie  "  soils.  They  are  exceedingly  rich,  strong, 
productive  soils,  among  the  best  in  the  South.  They 
grow  any  sort  <of  crops  well,  and  especially  do  they 
grow  alfalfa  luxuriantly.  Most  soils  in  the  south  are 
very  deficient  in  humus  and  without  the  dark  brown 
color.  That  is  because  moist  southern  soils  are  lime- 
hungry.  The  vegetation  that  has  fallen  upon  them 
and  been  buried  in  them  has  not  changed  to  black 
humus,  or  to  very  little  of  it.  Why  not  ?  Because  of 
the  absence  of  sufficient  carbonate  of  lime. 

In  Illinois  one  finds  the  northern  end  of  the  state, 
a  black,  rich  prairie  soil,  very  full  indeed  of  humus. 
The  southern  end  of  the  state,  on  the  other  hand, 
has  a  -soil  of  light  color,  very  deficient  in  humus. 
Think  what  story  this  tells!  Glaciers  ground  up 
limestones  in  the  northern  end  of  the  state  and  mixed 
their  detritus  through  the  soil.  Below  the  line  where 
the  limestones  reached  the  light  colored  soils  begin, 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  109 

The  same  sun  shone  on  all  of  Illinois  during  these 
centuries,  the  same  rains  fell,  prairie  grasses  grew 
over  most  of  the  land.  Where  carbonate  of  lime  was 
abundant  in  the  soil  humus  was  created,  and  the 
land  grew  black  and  rich.  Where  there  was  de- 
ficiency in  carbonate  of  lime  fertility  could  not 
gather.  It  is  a  most  significant  lesson. 

Carbonate  of  lime  then  conserves  humus  and  fer- 
tility in  some  way.  It  makes  a  healthful  home  for 
the  bacteria  that  help  plants.  What  else  does  it  do? 

Stops  Waste  of  Nitrogen. — Carbonate  of  lime 
stops  waste  of  nitrogen.  Decaying  vegetation  or 
humus  in  the  soil  creates  nitric  acid ;  this  is  readily 
soluble,  and  unless  taken  up  by  plants  soon  leaches 
away  and  is  gone.  Should  there  be  a  sufficient  sup- 
ply of  carbonate  of  lime  present,  however,  the  tiny 
drop  of  nitric  acid  seeking  to  escape  touches  a  par- 
ticle of  carbonate  of  lime,  the  two  unite  and  form  a 
calcium  nitrate.  This  locks  up  the  nitrogen  and  holds 
it  in  the  soil.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  store  fer- 
tility in  soils  deficient  in  carbonate  of  lime.  Soils  hav- 
ing a  large  store  of  carbonate  of  lime,  on  the  other 
hand,  will  accumulate  nitrogen,  and  hold  it  for  many 
years,  giving  it  up  again  when  called  upon  by  the 
plants.  I  have  seen  astonishing  instances  of  this  upon 
Woodland  Farm.  Certain  fields  have  had  on  them  at 
one  day  old  home  sites,  where  the  first  settlers  built 
their  little  cabins  and  had  their  gardens  and  cow  lots. 
For  forty  or  fifty  years  these  small  settlements  have 
been  swept  away,  and  nothing  remains  now  to  tell 
their  location  excepting  th§  fragments  of  brick  or 


110  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

pottery  turned  up  by  the  plow.  Naturally  the  late 
treatment  of  'these  fields  has  been  uniform,  and  as 
much  manure  has  been  applied  to  one  spot  as  to  an- 
other. When  sown  to  alfalfa,  however,  a  wonderful 
story  is  told,  since  the  alfalfa  plants,  rooting  deep, 
find  stores  of  fertility  in  the  subsoil,  leached  down 
perhaps  from  the  old  gardens  or  cow  lots,  and  held 
from  total  escape  by  the  presence  in  the  subsoil  of 
great  amounts  of  limestone  gravel  and  smaller  par- 
ticles. The  outline  of  these  old  gardens  and  cow  lots 
will  be  found  so  distinctly  defined  by  the  luxuriant 
alfalfa  growing  thereon  that  one  can  say  with  cer- 
tainty, i '  Here  stood  the  garden  fence ;  there  was  the 
man 's  cow  lot. ' ' 

Maintenance  of  Fertility. — In  America  we  have 
been  wont  to  boast  of  the  fertility  of  our  farms.  In 
truth,  we  have  great  stores  of  fertility,  yet  none  too 
much,  and  in  fact  it  is  probable  that  there  will  not 
be  found  in  America  one  farm  in  a  thousand  as  fer- 
tile as  it  should  be  to  yield  a  good  profit.  Other  and 
older  lands  are  more  fertile  than  ours.  The  old 
fields  of  France  have  some  of  them  been  farmed  for 
a  thousand  years,  and  none  can  say  how  much 
longer,  and  are  producing  today  better  than  Ameri- 
can fields;  and  in  England  the  same  story  is  often 
true.  These  fertile  foreign  fields  are  rich  in  carbo- 
nate of  lime;  and  yet  it  is  being  added  to>  and  its 
store  increased  by  each  provident  owner.  No  Ameri- 
can farmer  should  be  content  with  his  stores  of  fer- 
tility as  they  exist  today.  His  fields  are  not  rich 
enough  if  he  can  profitably  make  them  richer,  and 


CARBONATE  OF  LIME.  Ill 

indeed  with  nine-tenths  of  the  farms  of  America  -the 
fertility  is  so  low  that  any  hope  of  profitable  agri- 
culture thereon  must  first  be  based  upon  a  stern  and 
inflexible  determination  to  build  the  soils  and  make 
them  rich.  It  is  a  great  thought  then  that  we  have 
here,  that  soils  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime  naturally 
grow  rich  of  themselves  if  planted  with  leguminous 
crops,  or  even  left  in  a  state  of  nature,  and  that 
upon  these  soils  stored  abundantly  with  lime  almost 
any  degree  of  fertility  may  be  built.  And  what 
other  function  has  lime  in  the  soil!  We  need  not 
stop  here  to  discuss  its  power  to  floculate  and  ren- 
der more  porous  the  soil,  its  ability  to  bind  together 
sands,  and  so  on.  Perhaps  that  power  of  lime  has 
been  exaggerated,  but  this  is  true,  soils  rich  in  car- 
bonate of  lime  are  almost  universally  rich  also  in 
phosphorus.  This  arises  from  two  causes,  one  that 
lime  carbonates  usually  carry  a  percentage  of  phos- 
phorus in  their  own  composition;  the  other,  that 
they  prevent  the  waste  of  phosphorus  by  its  leach- 
ing away,  or  its  uniting  in  insoluble  compounds  with 
iron  or  alumina. 

Lime  the  Basis. — To  put  it  short,  you  cannot  build 
a  soil  rich  in  either  nitrogen  phosphorus  or  prob- 
ably potash  unless  it  is  first  rich  in  carbonate  of 
lime.  There  is  here  a  great  field  for  thought.  Hil- 
gard  says  that  no  great  and  enduring  civilization 
has  ever  been  built  upon  an  acid  soil.  This  seems 
true.  Babylon  stood  on  an  alkaline  plain  rich  in 
lime,  Egypt's  soils  are  reputed  rich  in  lime,  Greece 
was  built  upon  marble  hills,  Borne  upon  limestone, 


112  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

and  the  hills  of  Judea — where  grew  such  grapes, 
such  goodly  grain,  such  grass  that  the  land  literally 
flowed  with  milk  and  honey ;  Judea  where  David  the 
shepherd  boy  walked  and  tended  his  sheep  and  grew 
to  the  stature  of  a  man ;  Judea,  where  Christ  walked 
and  lived  and  loved — is  a  land  of  limestone,  the  lime 
soft  and  honeycombed  by  water,  constantly  decaying 
and  giving  its  riches  to  the  -soil.  It  is  a  curious 
thought,  indeed,  that  had  it  not  been  for  the  lime- 
stone in  the  hills  of  Judea,  perhaps  the  Master  of 
mankind  might  have  been  born  in  another  land. 

Availability  of  Lime. — So  far  as  the  writer's  re- 
searches have  extended,  everywhere  that  limestone 
is  found  alfalfa  grows  naturally,  almost  of  itself. 
This  book  will  be  read  by  many  men,  we  hope,  who 
have  not  been  blessed  by  being  placed  on  soils  rich 
in  carbonate  -of  lime.  Let  them  not  thereby  be 
overmuch  cast  down.  This  is  an  age  of  machinery 
and  of  cheap  transportation.  Limestone  exists  in 
incalculable  amounts  throughout  a  great  part  of  the 
United  States,  and  can  be  burned  or  ground  raw,  and 
transported  from  the  cliffs  to  the  farms  at  very  small 
cost.  This  will  be  done  some  day,  no  doubt.  It  is 
only  a  question  of  the  farmers  awakening  to  the 
advantages  to  be  derived  from  the  use  of  abundant 
carbonate  of  lime,  and  their  asking  for  it,  when 
manufacturers  will  be  glad  in  nearly  every  state, 
as  they  have  in  Ohio,  to  place  the  stuff  on  the  market 
at  a  reasonable  rate.  My  good  friend,  Prof.  A.  D. 
Selby,  of  the  Ohio  agricultural  experiment  station, 
himself  almost  9$  great  an  enthusiast  on  lime  as 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  113 

writer,  once  remarked  that  "  Never  yet  was  found 
an  abandoned  farm  in  America  that  had  in  its  soil 
anything  like  a  sufficiency  of  carbonate  of  lime." 

Evidence  of  Lime. — It  is  easy  to  note  the  evidence 
of  lime.  Soils  rich  in  it  naturally  cover  with  grass, 
which  stops  erosion,  therefore  the 'hills  are  smooth 
and  rounded;  roadsides  are  carpeted  with  grass  as 
though  seeded  by  some  maker  of  lawns;  animals 
stand  tranquil  and  content  in  pastures  filled  with  nu- 
tritious forage;  horses  grown  on  soils  rich  in  lime 
have  fine  forms  and  much  life  and  spirit;  boys  and 
girls  have  good  teeth  and  strong  bones;  in  fact 
nearly  all  agricultural  joy  centers  around  the  abun- 
dance of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil. 

Add  Limestone. — If  you  have  not  enough  lime  in 
your  soil  get  it.  It  is  a  thing  fairly  permanent  in 
itself.  The  rain  leaches  it  away,  the  soil  acids 
dissolve  it.  We  do  not  know  yet  just  how  fast 
these  processes  accomplish  their  object,  yet  it  is  not 
probably  so  very  rapid.  When  you  put  a  ton  of 
limestone  in  your  soil  it  lasts  till  it  has  been  dis- 
solved by  the  rain  or  made  inert  by  soil  acids.  If 
you  put  in  enough  lime  your  sons  will  have  its  bene- 
fits. With  it  you  can  set  about  soil  building  in  good 
courage.  With  lime  enough  you  can  grow  clovers, 
grow  alfalfa,  grow  the  best  grasses.  What  fertility 
you  add  through  stable  manures  will  not  leach  away. 
A  good  German  farmer  in  western  Maryland  re- 
marked one  day  as  he  spoke  of  the  large  amounts  of 
lime  they  were  burning  to  apply  to  their  fields: 
"Yes,  Mr.  Wing,  it  may  be  true  that  lime  is  not 


114  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

manure,  but  it  certainly  makes  our  barn  manures 
last  two  or  three  years  longer  than  they  do  when  we 
do  not  use  lime."  The  truth  is  that  the  presence  in 
their  soil  of  abundant  carbonate  of  lime  did  two 
useful  things — it  stopped  the  leaching  away  of  sol- 
uble nitrates  and  it  promoted  the  development  in 
their  soil  of  the  wonderful  little  organisms  that  can 
fix  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  even  without  the  aid  of 
legumes,  the  azotobacter.  Has  any  farmer  failed  to 
note  that  grass  land,  when  full  of  carbonate  of  lime, 
gets  stored  full  of  nitrogen,  even  without  the  pres- 
ence of  many  clovers?  That  is  the  work,  so  scien- 
tists tell  us,  of  these  marvelous  little  azotobacter 
organisms. 

Carbonate  of  Lime  Is  Neutral. — There  is  an  old 
saying  that  has  done  more  to  harm  agriculture 
throughout  the  English  speaking  world  than  any 
other  known  combination  of  words.  It  is  this :  ' '  Lime 
enriches  the  father  and  impoverishes  the  son." 

This  saying  leads  men  to<  believe  that  lime  is  a 
stimulant,  something  that  enables  plants  to  forage 
more  vigorously  and  thus  more  quickly  rob  the  soil, 
or  else  that  the  lime  sets  free  plant  food.  There  is, 
of  course,  some  truth  in  these  assumptions  if  applied 
to  burned  lime.  Burned  lime  does  attack  humus 
or  any  vegetable  or  organic  compound.  Used  in  ex- 
cess it  may  render  soils  temporarily  barren.  But 
carbonate  of  lime  never  injures  soil  in  any  way.  It 
is  a  neutral  thing ;  like  sand  it  attacks  nothing.  Soil 
acids  attack  it;  it  welcomes  the  enemy  and  absorbs  it 
into  itself.  Could  we  change  that  old  saw  to  read, 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  115 

*  *  Lime  enriches  the  father,  and  the  want  of  it  impov- 
erishes the  son,"  we  would  be  near  the  truth.  In 
England  we  read  that  while  lime  has  been  in  use 
there  for  many  centuries,  it  has  largely  been  in  neg- 
lect for  the  past  forty  years,  and  now  there  must  be 
a  decided  awakening  and'a  renewed  use  of  it  or  Eng- 
lish soils  will  relapse  most  sadly. 

Forms  and  Kinds  of  Lime. — Eaw  limestone  is  a 
carbonate  of  lime.  Burning  it  drives  off  the  carbon 
and  makes  it  a  quick,  or  caustic,  lime.  After  burn- 
ing, when  it  absorbs  moisture  and  carbonic  acid  gas 
again  and  becomes  air-slaked  lime,  it  has  then  less 
causticity  than  when  it  was  first  burned.  If  it  is 
slaked  with  a  little  water,  so  that  it  falls  into  a  dry 
powder,  it  is  caustic  lime.  If  it  is  slaked  and  ground 
in  a  factory  it  is  called  hydrated  or  agricultural 
lime.  It  is  sometimes  ground  without  adding  water, 
when  it  is  termed  ground  lime ;  or  the  raw  limestone 
is  ground  into  powder,  which  is  called  ground  car- 
bonate of  lime,  or  ground  limestone,  or  raw  lime- 
stone. 

Now,  what  of  the  virtues  of  these  various  forms  of 
lime? 

The  burning  drives  off  nearly  half  the  weight  of 
the  natural  limestone;  thus  the  resultant  product  is 
nearly  twice  as  strong  as  it  was  before  burning. 
Thus  if  it  must  be  shipped  a  long  way  by  rail  it  may 
save  so  much  in  freight  that  it  will  be  better  to  use 
the  burned  lime.  Burning  has  also  made  it  biting 
or  caustic.  A  lump  of  this  caustic  lime  held  in  the 
hand  and  moistened  will  eat  the  flesh.  Caustic  lime 


116  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

will  attack  vegetable  matter  or  humus  in  the  soil. 
Applied  in  excess  it  will  destroy  bacterial  life,  so 
caustic  lime  is  not  so  safe  to  use  as  the  raw  rock 
ground,  the  true  carbonate  of  lime.  On  the  other 
hand  one  can  use  less  of  it  and  get  effect  sooner,  be- 
cause of  its  energy.  The  difficulty  in  its  use  to  pro- 
mote alfalfa  growing  is  that  one  ought  to  use  more 
than  lime  enough  to  correct  acidity  when  he  is  lay- 
ing land  down  to  alfalfa;  he  ought  to  correct  the 
acidity  and  leave  a  goodly  store  of  lime  carbonate 
lying  in  the  soil,  so  that  alfalfa  roots  will  be  in  actual 
contact  as  the  plants  grow.  This  one  can  hardly 
do  with  safety  with  caustic  lime. 

Use  of  Caustic  Lime. — How  much  caustic  lime 
can  be  safely  used  and  how  can  it  best  be  applied  ? 

Soils  differ  in  their  power  to  absorb  lime  safely. 
Strong  clays  and  soils  full  of  sour  humus  can  take 
most;  sandy,  poor  soils  must  be  limed  with  care  if 
caustic  lime  is  used.  There  is  some  danger  of  ' '  lime 
burn,"  that  is,  of  making  soil  temporarily  barren 
by  giving  it  an  excess  of  caustic  lime.  The  poorer 
the  soils  in  humus  the  more  danger  of  this.  Yet  I 
have  seen  alfalfa  fields  in  Maryland  where  the  only 
good  alfalfa  present  was  where  the  piles  of  lime  had 
been  slaked,  and  where  probably  the  lime  had  been 
applied  at  the  rate  of  ten  tons  to  the  acre  or  more. 

How  much  caustic  lime  can  we  use?  No  one 
knows  just  at  present.  I  saw  this  experiment  tried 
in  Tennessee:  On  Idlehour  Farm,  near  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  James  P.  McDonald  had  tried  to  grow  alfalfa 
on  Tennessee  Eiver  lands.  It  'had  miserably  failed. 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  117 

Crab  grass  had  choked  out  the  feeble  growth.  Mr. 
McDonald  was  a  stubborn  man  and  had  seen  alfalfa 
grow  in  South  America.  He  was  determined  to 
grow  it  on  Idlehour.  Suspecting  that  lime  was  the 
thing  needed,  he  burned  a  lot  of  it  on  his  own  place 
and  applied  it  with  a  manure  spreader.  His  aim 
was  to  apply  about  two  tons  to  the  acre.  In  many 
parts  he  applied  at  least  double  that  amount. 
Wherever  the  manure  spreader  dropped  the  lime 
the  alfalfa  grew  luxuriantly  and  the  crab  grass,  was 
vanquished.  I  could  not  but  marvel  as  I  drove 
through  this  wonderful  alfalfa.  It  was  the  twenty- 
fourth  day  of  July  and  the  alfalfa  stood  above  the 
axles  of  the  carriage  and  was  ready  to  be  mown,  the 
third  crop  for  the  season.  There  was  hardly  a  bit  of 
grass  or  any  weeds  in  the  alfalfa.  To  show  that  the 
lime  had  done  the  work,  one  could  see  where  the 
man  driving  the  spreader  had  left  strips  here  and 
there  without  lime.  In  these  strips  was  hardly  any 
alfalfa,  and  it  was  little,  feeble  stuff,  while  just  be- 
side it,  where  the  lime  had  been  applied,  it  stood  up 
like  a  wall. 

Crab  Grass  and  Lime. — It  seems  true  that  crab 
grass,  that  arch  enemy  of  alfalfa  in  the  south,  is 
easily  vanquished  by  use  of  a  goodly  amount  of 
lime.  I  have  enough  evidence  of  this  to  believe  that 
it  may  be  laid  down  as  a  law  that  lime  will  cure  crab 
grass  in  alfalfa.  It  is  not  probable  that  the  lime 
destroys  the  crab  grass,  or  is  particularly  injurious 
to  it,  but  it  so  helps  the  alfalfa  that  it  springs  into 
quick  growth  and  gets  the  start  of  the  grass.  Hardly 


118  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

anything  can  stand  before  healthy  alfalfa.  Almost 
any  weed  will  conquer  unhealthy  alfalfa.  Lime  is 
its  tonic,  its  heal-all. 

Amount  of  Caustic  Lime. — How  much  caustic  lime 
will  we  dare  use?  In  an  acre  of  soil,  counting  the 
top  foot,  there  are  roughly  about  2,000  'tons.  The 
sweetening  of  this  mass  of  soil  cannot  be  accom- 
plished by  any  handful  of  lime.  One  ton  to  the  acre 
is  one  part  in  2,000;  two  tons  to  the  acre  is  one- 
tenth  of  one  per  cent,  of  lime.  It  would  seem  folly 
to  use  less  than  two  tons  to  the  acre  of  caustic  lime. 
Double  that,  well  distributed,  would  almost  cer- 
tainly do  harm.  Is  there  a  man  who  has  harmed  his 
soil  by  putting  in  it  four  tons  of  caustic  lime  to  the 
acre,  seeing  that  it  is  well  distributed,  and  that  the 
land  has  good  store  of  humus,  and  has  then  sown  it 
to  alfalfa? 

Caustic  lime  must  not  be  supposed  to  remain 
caustic  for  a  long  time  after  it  is  applied  to  the  soil. 
It  soon  absorbs  carbon  again  and  becomes  a  neutral 
and  harmless  substance.  This  being  true,  why  not 
use  some  form  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  begin- 
ning? The  only  answer  is  that  it  is  sometimes 
cheaper,  because  of  freights  or  lack  of  machinery 
for  grinding,  to  use  the  burned  lime. 

Other  Forms  of  Lime. — Now  for  some  other  forms 
of  lime.  Air->slaked  lime,  as  has  been  said,  ha>s 
absorbed  a  lot  of  carbon  and  is  not  nearly  so  biting 
and  caustic  as  the  fresh  burned  lime.  It  is  fre- 
quently for  sale  at  a  comparatively  low  price,  be- 
cause it  is  a  waste  product  about  lime  kilns.  It  is 


CARBONATE   OP   LIME.  119 

safe  to  use  in  fairly  large  amounts  on  the  land. 
Probably  no  harm  would  result  from  using  as  much 
as  six  tons  to  'the  acre  of  air  slaked  lime.  One  may 
burn  his  own  lime  and,  putting  it  in  piles,  let  it  air 
slake  on  his  own  farm  if  he  has  time  to  wait,  or  he 
may  buy  it  cheap  from  the  refuse  about  the  kilns. 
Bear  in  mind  that  it  has  gained  in  weight  in  slaking, 
and  is  only  about  two'- thirds  as  strong  as  the  fresh 
burned  lime. 

Ground  lime  is  fresh-burned  lime  ground  ready 
for  use.  It  is  very  convenient  to  distribute,  and 
there  may  possibly  be  some  virtue  in  having  it  slake 
in  direct  connection  with  the  land.  The  only  objec- 
tion to  its  use  is  that  manufacturers  often  charge 
pretty  well  for  grinding  it.  The  farmer  can  some- 
times grind  it  at  home,  or  he  can  buy  lump  lime  and 
slake  it  at  home  at  almost  no  cost.  He  can  pile  the 
lime  in  little  piles  of  a  bushel  in  a  place  over  the 
field  and  let  it  slake  by  absorbing  moisture  from  the 
soil ;  then  when  it  is  in  powder  spread  it  at  once  with 
the  .shovel.  Or  he  can  slake  it  to  powder  in  a  large 
pile  and  apply  it  with  a  lime  distributor  or  by  use 
of  the  manure  spreader.  To  first  lay  down  in  the 
manure  spreader  a  thin  layer  of  chaff  or  manure 
and  set  the  machine  on  the  slow  speed,  will  make  it 
work  very  well.  Many  manure  spreaders  are  now 
made  with  special  lime  distributors. 

Time  to  Apply. — When  is  the  right  time  to  put  on 
caustic  lime!  Not  in  direct  connection  with  manure, 
since  it  will  doubtless  attack  the  manure  and  set 
free  more  or  less  nitrogen  that  may  possibly  be 


120  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

wasted.  Better  to  turn  the  manure  under  and  apply 
the  lime  afterward.  It  can  then  be  mixed  through 
the  soil  with  the  disk  or  any  sort  of  harrow.  Lime 
sinks,  rains  dissolve  it  and  leach  it  down,  so  usually 
it  is  best  not  to  turn  it  down  deep.  It  takes  a  liitle 
time  for  lime  to  neutralize  soil  acidity,  so  get  it  on 
some  weeks  or  months  ahead  of  the  time  that  you 
wish  to  sow  alfalfa.  The  time  of  year  when  it  is 
applied  is  not  essential.  A  farm  is  a  busy  place,  if 
it  is  a  business  farm.  So  just  get  out  the  lime  when- 
ever you  have  leisure,  only  remembering  not  to  put 
caustic  lime  in  contact  with  manure  if  you  can  well 
avoid  it. 

Depth  to  Apply  Lime. — As  has  been  said,  lime 
sinks,  so  it  is  usually  best  to  put  it  near  the  surface. 
It  ought,  however,  to  be  mixed  as  perfectly  as 
possible  with  the  soil,  and  is  not  very  effective  when 
left  in  lumps,  since  it  is  not  then  in  contact  with 
enough  of  the  soil  particles.  There  are  soils  that 
have  such  acid  subsoils  that  they  will  not  grow 
alfalfa  more  than  a  year  or  two  before  it  perishes. 
In  these  soils  the  roots  decay  down  about  six  inches 
below  the  surface.  Sometimes  this  rotting  is  caused 
by  too  much  water  in  the  subsoil,  but  when  the  sub- 
soil is  dry  water  will  not  stand  in  post  holes,  and 
then  one  must  conclude  that  it  is  soil  acidity  that  is 
a)t  fault,  especially  if  he  finds  by  the  litmus  paper 
test  that  the  soil  is  really  sour.  I  have  seen  such 
soils  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  In  the  making 
of  these  soils  lime  was  left  out  and  other  combina- 
tions of  chemicals  put  in  that  form  probably  mineral 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  121 

acids.  Liming  the  surface  makes  alfalfa  start  off 
vigorously  and  make  good  growth  for  a  year  or  a 
little  longer,  then  it  begins  to  decay,  and  will  rarely 
live  the  second  winter.  In  these  soils  the  need  is  to 
study  how  best  to  get  lime  down  into  the  subsoil,  or 
at  least  down  in  direct  contact  with  it.  I  suggest 
that  one  way  to  accomplish  this  is  to  apply  lime  very 
liberally  to  the  top  of  the  land  before  plowing,  then 
to  turn  the  land  as  deep  as  possible,  turning  at  the 
same  time  the  furrows  as  near  as  practicable 
squarely  upside  down.  A  better  plan,  but  more  la- 
borious, would  be  to  distribute  the  lime  in  the  bot- 
tom of  each  furrow  as  the  land  was  plowed,  turning 
it  under  by  the  next  following  furrow.  This  puts 
the  lime  in  direct  contact  with  the  subsoil.  If  a  sub- 
soil plow  could  now  follow  and  open  the  underlying 
ground,  which  would  let  some  of  the  lime  drop  into 
it,  the  work  would  be  done  in  an  ideal  manner. 

Value  of  Liming. — It  may  make  men  in  California 
or  Colorado  smile  to  read  of  any  such  laborious  way 
of  making  land  ready  for  alfalfa  in  the  East.  They 
need  not  scorn  the  eastern  man  nor  his  soil  or 
methods.  He  has  in  truth  better  opportunity  to 
make  profit  from  alfalfa  growing  than  they  with 
their  splendid  soils,  rich  in  lime  and  phosphorus, 
and  their  fine,  sunny  skies.  The  eastern  man  has 
advantage  of  splendid  markets.  His  alfalfa  when 
he  gets  it  is  worth  to  him  at  least  $15  per  ton,  and 
if  he  is  a  dairyman  or  a  stockman  buying  wheat  bran 
at  $25  per  ton  he  can  very  nearly  replace  a  ton  of 
purchased  bran  with  a  ton  of  alfalfa  hay  grown 


122  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

near  his  own  barn.  Then  eastern  lands  sell  at  com- 
paratively low  prices;  all  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board land  can  be  bought  for  from  $40  to  $75  per 
acre  that  will,  with  proper  preparation,  grow  from 
three  to  seven  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  a  year.  Some 
western  men  are  seeing  this  and  coming  back  to  the 
neglected  Atlantic  states,  and  with  splendid  west- 
ern faith  and  enthusiasm  are  building  alfalfa  soils 
there  and  reaping  rich  profits  therefrom.  I  have  in 
mind  very  many  instances  where  liming  lands  has 
brought  alfalfa  after  it  had  repeatedly  failed  before 
the  lime  was  applied. 

Effects  of  Lime. — When  God  made  soils  He  often 
made  them  by  grinding  up  rock  masses,  either  by 
use  of  glacial  icebergs  or  by  the  grinding  action  of 
rivers.  When  these  rock  masses  were  of  limestone, 
the  result  was  a  limestone  soil  filled  with  particles 
great  and  small  of  ground  limestone  or  carbonate  of 
lime.  In  some  soils  there  are  enormous  amounts  of 
this  material.  In  some  very  fertile  soils  of  northern 
Illinois,  taking  the  top  five  feet  there  will  be  found 
in  one  acre  as  much  as  500  tons  of  carbonate  of 
lime.  Such  soils  are  always  rich  and  productive. 
They  are  always  natural  alfalfa  soils,  provided  they 
are  well  drained.  Along  most  rivers  the  alluviums 
are  pretty  well  stored  with  carbonate  of  lime,  thus 
one  sees  the  river  bottoms  growing  alfalfa  well  when 
the  near  lying  uplands  are  too  sour  to  grow  it  at  all. 
It  is  because  of  the  greater  amount  of  lime  in  these 
alluvial  soils,  that  and  the  better  drainage  and  fer- 
tility all  around,  that  mark  them  as  alfalfa  lands. 


CARBONATE   OF  LIME.  123 

There  are  river  soils  that  -will  not  grow  alfalfa,  but 
they  are  soils  made  by  the  deposition  of  silt  that 
came  itself  from  land  too  poor  in  lime.  Much  of 
western  Kentucky  will  not  grow  alfalfa  without  lim- 
ing, yet  along  the  rivers,  particularly  along  the  Mis- 
sissippi Eiver,  alfalfa  grows  gloriously.  The  same 
is  true  of  the  land  across  the  -river  in  Missouri. 
Much  Missouri  land  needs  lime  to  promote  alfalfa 
growth,  but  the  alluvial  soils  near  the  Mississippi 
grow  it  beautifully,  and  alfalfa  growing  in  southeast 
Missouri  is  assuming  large  proportions. 

In  Kentucky  the  writer  has  observed  certain  steep, 
stony  hillsides  growing  alfalfa  luxuriantly,  while 
many  level  and  apparently  much  richer  soils  not  far 
away  would  not  grow  it  at  all.  The  reason  was 
plain ;  the  small  stones  were  fragments  of  limestone, 
and  the  soil,  though  apparently  poor,  was  yet  rich 
in  carbonate  of  lime,  fairly  well  stored  with  phos- 
phorus and  potas'h,  and  the  alfalfa,  finding  itself 
so  healthy  and  vigorous,  foraged  for  its  own 
nitrogen. 

In  Washington  state  alfalfa  grows  splendidly 
along  the  eastern  side  and  in  the  irrigated  valleys 
of  the  middle  section,  because  the  soils  there  are 
alkaline  and  not  sour,  with  abundant  lime,  but  on 
the  western  slope  of  the  mountains  and  along  Puget 
Sound  it  grows  hardly  at  all,  because  lime  is  deficient 
in  those  soils.  On  an  island  in  Puget  Sound  the 
writer  found  very  luxuriant  alfalfa  growing  near 
the  shore,  and  upon  investigation  found  great  quan- 
tities of  shells  buried  in  the  soil.  The  Indians  had 


124  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

feasted  on  clams,  it  would  seem,  and  this  was  the 
dumping  ground  for  their  shells  during  unnum- 
bered years.  Here  then  was  carbonate  of  lime,  and 
it  was  most  noticeable  that  the  soil  in  the  interstices 
between  'the  shells  was  dark  in  color  and  evidently 
contained  a  good  deal  of  humus,  while  the  soil  of 
the  interior  away  from  the  lime  was  raw  and  yellow. 
The  lesson  is  plain;  in  order  to  make  alfalfa  grow 
all  over  western  Washington  it  is  only  necessary  to 
apply  lime,  and  as  limestone  is  very  scant  in  supply 
the  best  source,  perhaps,  would  be  these  very  shells, 
which  could  be  ground  to  a  powder  and  mixed  with 
the  soil. 

Lime  in  England. — In  other  lands  men  have  long 
imitated  Nature's  way  and  used  lime  in  large 
amounts.  England  is  built  upon  chalk  rock,  arid 
chalk  is  a  soft  form  of  carbonate  of  lime.  For  cen- 
turies farmers  have  dug  this  soft  chalk  and  hauled 
it  to  the  fields,  spreading  it  broadcast  where  it  soon 
crumbled  and  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  writer  lias 
stood  on  the  brinks  of  chalk  pits  in  England  so  deep 
that  only  'the  tops  of  trees  peeped  above  their  edges 
and  marveled  as  he  reflected  what  enormous 
amounts  of  chalk  had  been  taken  from  them  and  for 
what  a  very  long  time  men  had  been  doing  good 
farming  in  that  land.  It  is  a  curious  thought,  too, 
that  the  soil  to  which  these  good  English  farmers 
were  applying  this  lime  was  already  what  we  would 
term  in  America  a  limestone  soil.  It  was  a  soil  once 
derived  from  the  chalk  rock  itself,  decaying  through 
the  ages  through  the  action  of  soil  waters  and  soil 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  125 

acids.  Rains  fall,  they  leach  out  lime,  plants  decay, 
turn  sour,  the  acid  attacks  lime,  thus  year  by  year 
th  top  soil  loses  more  and  more  its  lime  and  tends 
to  sourness.  Once  in  Lincolnshire  I  walked  down 
into  a  chalk  pit  where  a  laborer  was  loading  a  cart, 
on  the  farm  of  Henry  Dudding,  of  Lincoln  sheep  and 
Short-horn  cattle  fame,  and  asked  the  laborer  why 
he  dug  the  chalk.  "It  be  for  the  dung,  sir,"  was  the 
response. 

"And  do  you  put  it  on  the  land?" 

"Ay,  and  it  do  make  the  clovers  and  the  grass 
grow  better,  sir, ' '  was  the  response.  This  on  a  farm 
already  buried  in  rich  grass,  already  having  enough 
lime  in  its  soils  so  that  sheep  pasturing  on  them  had 
bones  like  calves  and  cattle  stood  on  legs  like  straight 
columns  of  a  temple. 

Rider  Haggard  in  his  interesting  book,  "Bural 
England,"  makes  frequent  reference  to  lucerne, 
stating  usually  that  it  is  grown  where  the  land  was 
chalky  and  drouthy.  On  one  farm  he  found  them 
applying  a  sort  of  marl  that  they  dug  from  the  sub- 
soil, this  on  the  farm  of  Robert  Stephenson  of  Bur- 
well,  Cambridge.  I  quote : 

He  described  to  me  a  process  which  I  was  not  fortunate 
enough  to  witness,  as  in  these  days  of  depression  it  is,  I  under- 
stand, but  seldom  practiced  on  account  of  the  initial  expense,  al- 
though it  used  to  be  common  enough — that  of  treating  fen  lands 
with  gault.  This  gault,  a  mixture  of  clay  and  marl,  is  dug  from 
the  subsoil  out  of  trenches  cut  ten  yards  apart,  and  spread  on 
the  surrounding  surface  to  the  quantity  of  about  200  tons  to  the 
acre.  The  land  thus  treated  is  said  to  double  its  value.  The  cost 
of  the  operation  may  be  put  at  from  $15  to  $25  per  acre.  One 
application  will  last  from  10  to  12  years,  the  full  benefits  being 
experienced  in  the  second  year  after  treatment. 


126  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN  AMERICA. 

Mr.  Stephenson  also  grew  lucerne,  and  when  he 
wished  to  sow  down  land  to  grass  for  a  permanent 
pasture,  sowed  the  grass  seed  in  the  lucerne  field, 
finding  that  the  seed  took  well  there  (as  we  have  all 
learned,  of  times  to  our  sorrow),  and  that  the  lucerne 
or  alfalfa  furnished  good  pasturage  till  the  other 
seeds  came  on. 

I  have  mentioned  these  foreign  uses  of  carbonate 
of  lime  because  agriculture  is  so  recent  in  America 
that  we  have  not  much  precedent  to  which  to  refer, 
and  agricultural  practice  abroad  is  the  result  of 
experiences  of  the  fathers  for  centuries  back  .  What- 
ever one  finds  them  doing  over  there  he  may  feel 
pretty  certain  has  been  well  tried  and  tested.  In 
Scotland  I  have  seen  heath  land  reclaimed  and  made 
into  farming  land.  The  process  there  was  to  first 
drain  the  wet,  sour  slopes,  then  lime  them  with  about 
thirty  tons  to  the  acre  of  lime,  the  raw  carbonate  of 
lime  being  used,  if  I  remember  correctly,  and  after 
that  manure  was  used;  then  clovers,  turnips,  oats, 
grass  or  any  good  thing  that  the  climate  would 
grow. 

New  Work. — It  is  rather  a  new  work,  this  use  of 
carbonate  of  lime  or  raw  ground  limestone  in  Amer- 
ica. A  few  years  ago  nothing  could  be  done  except 
to  dig  marls  out  of  the  earth  where  they  were  to  be 
found,  and  as  these  marls  were  nearly  always 
under  water  not  much  of  this  has  been  done.  With 
the  increase  in  use  of  concrete  construction  came 
call  for  crushed  limestone.  Railways  asked  also 
for  crushed  limestone  for  ballast  material.  Crush- 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  127 

ers  of  great  size  and  power  were  installed  at  lime- 
stone quarries  and  quantities  of  limestone  dust  ac- 
cumulated. Finally  men  began  hesitatingly  to  use 
this  limestone  dust.  The  results  were  astonishingly 
good.  Then  quarrymen  began  advertising  the 
ground  limestone  and  selling  it  at  a  low  price.  The 
farmers  took  hold  of  it  in  Ohio,  Illinois  and  some 
other  states,  and  at  last  quarrymen  began  installing 
large  crushers  and  grinders  that  took  the  raw  rock 
from  the  quarry  and  reduced  it  to  powder,  making 
the  whole  output  fit  for  farm  use.  This  is  usually 
put  on  cars  in  bulk  and  sold  for  from  75  cents  to 
$1.50  per  ton.  The  low  price  quoted  is  from  a  point 
in  Illinois  where  the  writer  believes  the  state,  with 
convict  labor,  grinds  limestone  for  agricultural 
purposes. 

Limestone  Harmless. — This  ground  limestone  is 
harmless  to  the  soil,  so  one  may  use  as  much  of  it 
as  he  chooses.  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  of  the  Illinois 
experiment  station  has  applied  it  at  the  rate  of  100 
tons  to  the  acre  with  not  the  least  sign  of  injury  to 
the  soil.  It  is  pleasant  stuff  to  work  with,  not  acrid 
and  biting  like  burned  lime  if  it  gets  on  your  skin, 
nor  does  it  get  caked  together  if  it  happens  to  get 
wet.  One  may  put  it  on  his  soil  at  any  time  that 
suits  his  convenience.  He  may  put  it  on  in  connec- 
tion with  manure  if  he  wishes  and  no  harm  will 
result.  It  cannot  burn  out  the  humus,  it  attacks 
nothing.  Soil  acids  attack  the  particles  of  limestone 
and  are  neutralized,  but  the  lime  itself  does  no  harm 
no  matter  how  much  is  used.  It  is  nature's  way  of 


128  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

using  lime  in  the  soil.  Some  day,  soon  let  us  hope, 
there  will  be  thousands  of  machines  busily  at  work 
grinding  up  the  raw  limestone  rocks,  which  fortu- 
nately are  plentiful  enough  in  America,  and  farmers 
will  be  busy  spreading  this  sweetening  powder 
broadcast  over  their  land. 

Distributing  Lime. — I  have  found  some  difficulty 
in  distributing  limes.  Spreaders  there  are,  but 
usually  they  do  not  apply  it  nearly  fast  enough. 
There  will  be  machines  devised  that  will  apply  as 
much  as  one  wishes,  up  to  ten  tons  to  the  acre,  no 
doubt.  At  present  the  manure  spreader  seems  as 
satisfactory  as  anything  available  for  spreading 
ground  limestone. 

Quantity  of  Lime. — How  much  should  be  used  on 
an  acre?  It  is  difficult  to  say.  The  art  of  lim- 
ing is  too  new  in  America,  especially  with  carbonate 
of  lime,  ground  limestone,  to  give  us  much  data,  We 
can  only  guess.  The  writer  has  known  of  remark- 
able results  from  use  of  as  little  as  three  tons  per 
acre  of  ground  limestone.  This  seems  an  infinitesi- 
mal amount  when  one  considers  the  2,000  tons  of  soil 
in  the  top  foot  of  an  acre.  Take  that  acre  apart, 
there  are  160  square  rods  in  it.  Supposing  one  were 
asked  to  lime  one  square  rod  sufficiently  to  sweeten 
it  well,  using  the  inert  ground  limestone,  how  much 
would  he  naturally  put  in?  Most  sensible  men  would 
put  in  at  least  500  pounds,  supposing  cost  was  not 
considered.  That  would  make  forty  tons  to  the 
acre,  and  we  cannot  afford  tha.t  now;  there  are  too 
many  acres  to  be  limed.  But  we  can  afford  100 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  129 

pounds  to  the  square  rod,  and  that  seems  little 
enough,  and  yet  it  means  eight  tons  to  the  acre. 
That  amount  I  would  advise  when  the  material  can 
be  had  cheap  enough  to  make  it  possible,  and  even 
more.  It  costs!  Yes,  but  it  pays.  Take  an  acre  of 
old,  sour  land  that  is  not  worth  cultivating  in  its 
natural  state  and  put  on  it  eight  tons  of  ground 
limestone.  Put  the  cost  at  $2.50  per  ton.  That 
means  an  expense  for  liming  of  $20  per  acre.  Then 
that  land  will  be  fit  to  sow  alfalfa  upon,  as  soon  as 
it  has  been  drained  and  enriched.  Mind,  we  do  not 
claim  that  lime  is  a  manure.  The  lime  makes  it 
possible  to  grow  crops  that  make  manure.  With 
alfalfa  growing  well  upon  that  acre  it  ought  to  yield 
at  least  four  tons  each  year,  and  there  is  a  thousand 
pounds  of  hay  for  each  ton  of  raw  limestone  rock 
you  have  used.  Cannot  afford  it?  Can  you  afford 
not  to  do  it? 

But  with  much  less  ground  limestone  on  some 
soils  alfalfa  has  come  where  it  had  failed  repeatedly 
before.  Among  a  mass  of  similar  letters  I  find  this 
significant  one  from  Iowa : 

"After  repeated  failures  with  alfalfa  in  this  county  (Scott, 
Iowa),  I  have  acted  on  your  advice  and  applied  3,000  pounds  of 
raw  limestone  dust  with  the  seeding  in  August  of  1907.  This  acre, 
diagonally  across  the  three  different  varieties,  produced  a  uni- 
form luxuriant  growth  of  alfalfa  at  the  three  cuttings,  besides  a 
growth  of  one  foot  not  cut.  I  estimate  each  cutting  at  two  tons 
per  acre.  The  rest  of  the  field  showed  a  patchy  growth  ranging 
from  two  inches  to  18",  very  unsatisfactory.  I  am  convinced  that 
you  are  right  when  you  say  that  raw  limestone  will  assure  suc- 
cess with  alfalfa." 

I  tried  for  several  years  to  help  a  farmer  in  east- 
ern Pennsylvania  grow  alfalfa,  but  each  effort  was 


130  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

without  success.  I  advised  drainage,  and  the  land 
was  drained,  but  yet  alfalfa  refused  to  grow.  I 
advised  manure,  and  the  land  was  made  so  rich  that 
hog  weeds  grew  as  high  as  a  man's  head,  and  yet 
alfalfa  refused  to  grow.  I  advised  much  phos- 
phorus with  no  result.  Different  times  of  seeding 
were  tried,  and  inoculation  of  the  soil,  and  yet  only 
failure  resulted.  Then  I  gave  much  belated  advice 
to  lime,  and  lime  well,  to  use  eight  tons  of  ground 
limestone  to  the  acre  and  seed  in  late  July.  The 
man  did  nearly  as  he  was  told,  putting  on  six  tons 
of  raw  lime  dust  to  the  acre,  and  the  very  next  year 
cut  six  tons  to  the  acre  of  alfalfa  hay.  His  field  was 
the  marvel  of  all  the  country  around,  and  men  came 
to  see  it. 

I  could  multiply  these  instances  almost  indefi- 
nitely. 

Lime  in  Soils. — The  reader  should  bear  steadily 
in  mind  that  the  natural  alfalfa  growing  regions  of 
the  world  have  in  their  soils  now  about  from  .5  per 
cent  to  4  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Five-tenths 
per  cent  is  half  of  1  per  cent,  or  about  ten  tons  of  car- 
bonate of  lime  to  the  acre.  Four  per  cent,  would  be 
approximately  eighty  tons  of  carbonate  of  lime  to 
the  acre.  These  figures  are  for  the  top  foot  of  soil 
only.  In  natural  alfalfa  soils  the  subsoil  is  usually 
richer  in  lime  than  the  top  soil.  When  a  man  lives 
away  from  the  limestone  it  is  his  privilege  to  buy 
carbonate  of  lime  and  add  it  to  his  soil.  And  when 
he  lives  in  a  region  where  limestone  rocks  abound 
and  the  soil  is  yet  deficient  because  of  leaching1  rains 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  131 

of  many  centuries,  it  is  his  privilege  to  crush  and 
grind  the  rocks  of  his  own  farm  and  put  the  dust 
over  his  land. 

Farm  Machines  for  Crushing. — In  this  connection 
it  may  be  remarked  that  there  are  now  machines 
made  that  will  take  the  raw  rocks  that  may  crop  out 
on  a  man's  own  farm  and  grind  them  into  usable 
dust,  the  machines  being  mounted  on  wheels  and 
readily  portable,  so  that  they  can  be  drawn  from  one 
farm  to  another,  as  need  demands.  Thus  the  farmer 
may  have  a  machine  come  to  his  own  farm  and 
grind  up  for  him  a  pile  of  limestone  of  as  many  hun- 
dred tons  as  he  desires.  It  will  lie  in  pile  unharmed 
by  weather  till  he  is  ready  to  put  in  a  field. 

There  are  many  thousands  of  acres  of  land  in 
Ohio,  Tennessee,  Kentucky  and  adjoining  states  that 
is  fairly  fertile,  is  naturally  pretty  well  drained  so 
that  the  expense  of  drainage  will  be  but  slight,  and 
that  only  awaits  the  coming  of  lime  carbonate  to 
make  it  produce  good  alfalfa.  And  the  beauty  of 
it  is  that  in  Tennessee  and  Kentucky  very  often  the 
limestone  is  right  in  the  neighborhood,  and  some- 
times right  on  the  farm  where  it  is  needed. 

Summary. — I  realize  that  I  have  taken  not  a  little 
time  to  present  this  matter.  My  apology  is  that  the 
subject  is  fraught  with  such  import.  The  wealth  of 
our  land  can  easily  be  doubled.  Drainage  is  the 
first  step.  Use  of  carbonate  of  lime  is  the  second 
step,  and  the  third  is  the  addition  of  humus  to  the 
soil,  the  use  of  phosphorus,  in  some  instances  of 
potash,  and  the  sowing  of  alfalfa.  Or,  if  there  is 


132  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN  AMERICA. 

prejudice  against  alfalfa,  then  sow  clover,  or  any 
other  useful  legume.  Sure  it  is  that  once  the  land 
is  dry  and  sweet  all  the  other  good  things  will  nat- 
urally follow  in  train.  Bacterial  life  in  the  soil, 
sweet  and  abundant  crops  will  follow  with  better 
animal  life,  more  hope  in  the  farmer's  breast,  better 
schools  and  more  children  in  them,  better  country 
roads  (for  there  will  be  money  to  pay  for  them)  and 
a  higher  level  of  life  and  living  all  around. 

Fertility  and  Abandoned  Farms. — Prof.  A.  D. 
Selby  of  the  Ohio  agricultural  experiment  station,  in 
an  essay  read  before  the  Columbus  Horticultural 
Society  in  1907,  on  the  question  of  "Abandoned 
Farms,"  makes  the  following  significant  remarks 
concerning  the  intimate  relation  between  soil  sweet- 
ness, soil  bacteria  and  soil  life,  and  the  continuance 
and  progress  of  farm  occupancy.  We  quote: 

Vietch  has  made  the  following  observations:  "Broadly  speak- 
ing, no  more  striking  proof  of  the  importance  of  maintaining  an 
alkaline  reaction  basic  condition  of  the  soil  is  needed  than  is 
furnished  by  those  soils  which  have  become  famous  for  their 
persistent  fertility  under  exhaustive  cultivation.  The  loess  soil 
regur  of  India,  Tschernoseum  of  Russia,  chalk  of  England, 
basalt  of  the  far  northwest,  prairie  of  the  middle  west,  blue 
grass  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee,  and  the  limestone  valleys  of 
the  east  are  soils  which  are  recognized  as  the  most  fertile  in 
their  respective  localities,  and  have  maintained  their  pre-emi- 
nence in  fertility,  in  some  cases  for  thousands  of  years.  These 
soils  are  all  basic  in  character,  alkaline  in  reaction.  The  history 
of  liming  furnishes  more  general  evidence  upon  the  value  of  an 
alkaline  reaction  of  the  soil  as  one  of  the  chief  economic  factors 
in  crop  production.  *  *  * 

I  believe  it  was  Berthollet  who  observed  that  "la  terre  est 
quelque  chose  vivant" — "the  soil  is  a  living  thing."  In  a  much 
greater  degree  in  our  day  than  in  Berthollet's  day  we  recognize 
the  soil  as  a  living  medium,  whose  biological  content  is  now 
rich  or  now  poor,  here  abundant  and  full  of  vigorous  possibilities 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  133 

or  there  marked  by  a  paucity  in  both  organisms  and  cultural 
possibilities.  In  whatever  sense  my  hearers  may  conceive  of  the 
earth,  whether  here  covered  by  a  wide  range  of  growing  species 
of  trees,  shrubs,  herbs  and  grasses,  and  there  bedecked  within  the 
range  of  a  single  farm  with  a  number  of  fields  in  different  crops, 
say  of  potatoes,  corn,  oats,  wheat,  clover,  hay  and  the  like,  in 
like  degree  do  I  ask  them  to  conceive  of  the  vastly  richer  co- 
incident microscopic  life  present  within  these  highly  cultivated 
soils  working  ceaselessly  and  ever  and  anon  multiplying 
in  incalculable  numbers,  yet  ever,  so  long  as  favorable  cultural 
conditions  are  possible,  maintaining  themselves  both  as  to  the 
variety  and  number  of  sorts. 

Granting  once  this  conception  of  the  soil,  we  can  understand 
that  it  is  an  enclosing  nidus  as  well  as  a  nutrient  medium  which 
supports  this  life  within  and  upon  it.  This  nidus  may  be  here 
rendered  highly  acid  in  reaction  by  the  decomposition  of  vegeta- 
ble tissues  that  are  incorporated  in  it  or  there  become  excessively 
alkaline  if  no  soil  leaching  may  occur,  as  with  certain  alkali 
soils  of  the  west.  But  conceive  in  this  same  connection  the  great 
difference  as  a  result  of  years  of  culture  that  will  come  about  in 
a  soil  deficient  in  available  bases  which  may  at  all  times  be 
relied  upon  to  correct  automatically  the  acids  produced  by  the 
fermentations  and  decompositions  taking  place  in  the  soil,  as 
compared  with  a  soil  at  the  outset  very  largely  composed  of  in- 
soluble silica  or  sand,  and  lacking  in  these  same  automatic  cor- 
rections of  cultural  tendencies.  I  would  here  again  insist  that 
these  abandoned  farms  as  farm  lands  are  abandoned,  because 
they  come  soon  to  lack  that  biologic  balance  in  these  nidus  rela- 
tions and  in  their  contained  organic  life  as  well. 

May  we  not  add  that  the  practice  of  rotative  farming,  of 
which  this  region  shows  an  advanced  type,  has  its  justification 
and  its  profit  in  the  very  biologic  balance  maintained  thereby? 
May  we  not  go  even  further  and  point  to  continuous  cropping  in 
a  single  species  as  an  extreme  disturbance  of  this  balance  of  soil 
organisms  at  the  same  time  that  it  uses  up  particular  soil  con- 
stituents? I  am  convinced  that  in  both  cases  we  may  reply  in 
the  affirmative  and  that  fuller  knowledge  of  soil  life  may  show 
most  strikingly  the  mistake  of  continuous  cropping  just  as  the 
breeding  and  introduction  of  so  many  soil  diseases  of  the  special 
crop  have  so  often  shown  its  economic  disaster. 

What  has  just  been  stated  with  some  fullness  is  not  given  as 
a  proven  thesis;  rather  as  a  suggestion  that  has  for  many  years 
been  driven  step  by  step  into  the  writer's  soil  conceptions  in  the 
course  of  somewhat  extended  observation  and  reading  upon  farm 


134  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

and  soil  subjects.  No  pretensions  are  made  to  special  qualifica- 
tions in  this  line,  but  none  the  less  the  writer  is  firmly  convinced 
that  more  than  soil  chemistry,  as  it  has  been  applied  for  a 
century,  and  more  than  soil  physics,  as  so  ably  enlarged  within 
two  decades,  is  needed  to  furnish  the  explanation  of  the  vital 
changes  of  the  soil  and  their  relation  to  successful  agriculture. 

When  the  line  between  calcareous  or  limestone  outcrop  and 
sandstone  outcrop  marks  as  it  does  the  line  between  profitable 
land  and  unprofitable  land  for  certain  crop  purposes,  as  it  seems 
to  do  in  some  portions  of  Ohio,  it  may  not  be  wholly  heretical  to 
look  to  the  calcareous  compounds  as  offering  at  least  a  part  of 
the  explanation  of  the  differences.  When  history  adds  the  weight 
of  evidence  in  the  maintained  fertility  of  particular  calcareous 
soils  the  same  question  is  again  raised.  And  since  the  soil  chem- 
ist and  soil  physicist  have  not  marked  out  the  differences  either 
in  kind  or  degree,  an  appeal  to  the  soil  biologist,  to  the  soil 
bacteriologist  should  now  be  made.  Chester  of  the  Delaware  sec- 
tion once  made  determinations  of  the  number  of  bacteria  in  a 
gram  of  a  certain  Delaware  soil  before  and  at  periods  of  a 
few  weeks  after  this  soil  had  been  treated  to  dressings  of  lime 
of  various  amounts  and  to  Thomas  slag.  These  were  all 
in  pots  in  comparison  with  untreated  soil  from  the  same  source. 
The  acidity  of  the  original  soil  was  determined  and  the  amount 
of  correction  afforded  by  the  treatment  was  also  determined  by 
the  same  method;  while  the  untreated  soil  maintained  an  almost 
uniform  bacterial  floral  of  about  520,000  bacteria  per  gram  of 
soil,  the  soil  treated  to  dressings  of  lime  showeu  only  a  partial 
correction  of  apparent  acidity,  but  an  enormous  increase  in  the 
number  of  bacteria  per  gram  of  soil.  With  smaller  amounts  of 
lime,  say  at  the  rate  of  1,000  pounds  per  acre,  the  number  of 
bacteria  reached  2  to  3,000,000  per  gram  while  with  4,000  pounds 
of  lime  dressing  per  acre,  the  number  of  bacteria  reach  5  to 
8,000,000  per  gram  of  soil.  If  nothing  more  may  be  said,  we  cer- 
tainly conclude  that  these  results  are  very  suggestive.  I  wonder 
if  we  have  really  begun  the  study  of  the  problem  of  applying 
lime  to  siliceous  soils? 

Basic  Slag  a  Source  of  Lime. — There  is  a  phos- 
phatic  fertilizer  on  the  market  in  eastern  states 
wherever  convenient  to  ocean  ports  that  combines 
very  nicely  available  phosphorus  and  lime.  That  is 
the  Thomas  phosphate  or  basic  slag  meal.  This 
stuff  is  a  by-product  of  the  steel  mills  of  England 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  135 

and  Germany.  Our  own  iron  ores,  being  poorer  in 
phosphorus,  do  not  make  much  of  this  substance. 
It  is  in  great  use  in  the  Old  World.  Germany  alone 
uses  2,000,000  tons  of  it  each  year.  Wherever  tested 
in  America  it  seems  to  give  very  satisfactory  re- 
sults. The  writer  tested  it  on  Woodland  Farm  many 
years  ago  and  never  got  stronger,  healthier  alfalfa 
than  by  its  use. 

Basic  slag  usually  contains  from  16  to  20  per  cent, 
of  phosphoric  acid  with  from  36  to  50  per  cent,  of 
lime.  It  is  said  that  the  phosphoric  acid  is  in 
a  form  that  is  nearly  all  available,  and  it  can- 
not revert  in  the  soil  nor  leach  away.  There  is 
hardly  a  farm  east  of  the  Missouri  river  where 
more  phosphorus  will  not  yield  profit.  Where 
freights  are  not  too  high,  basic  slag  costs  no  more 
for  the  available  phosphoric  acid  than  any  other 
source  of  phosphorus,  and  thus  the  lime  is  gotten 
free.  It  is  advised  that  from  1,200  to  1,500  pounds 
per  acre  of  basic  slag  be  applied  where  alfalfa  is 
sown.  The  large  surplus  of  phosphorus  thus  given 
will  not  leach  away,  but  will  remain  to  feed  the 
plants  for  some  years,  while  the  lime  will  help 
sweeten  the  soil. 

Basic  slag  costs  too  much  for  use  at  present  in  the 
cornbelt  states.  Where  it  is  available  is  in  New 
England,  New  York,  and  along  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board. The  price  is  about  one  dollar  per  unit  of 
phosphoric  acid ;  that  is,  slag  analyzing  17  per  cent, 
available  phosphoric  acid  would  cost  the  consumer 
about  $17  per  ton.  At  present  writing  the  Coe- 


136  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Mortimer  Co.   of  New  York  import  most  of  the 
Thomas  phosphate. 

I  have  seen  astonishing  results  from  the  use  of 
this  substance  in  England,  where  it  is  applied  to 
meadows  and  pastures.  In  May  in  England  one  sees 
many  manure  distributers  or  fertilizer  distributers 
going  over  the  meadows  and  pastures.  If  he  will 
take  trouble  to  see  What  these  machines  are  distrib- 
uting he  will  find  in  most  instances  it  is  basic  slag 
that  is  being  sown  over  the  grass,  sometimes  with 
an  addition  of  nitrate  of  soda  or  potash.  Where  the 
basic  slag  is  put,  very  marked  result  is  seen  in  the 
clovers  that  spring  up  in  the  grass.  Even  when  no 
clover  seeds  are  sown  at  all  the  result  is  often  as 
though  it  had  been  sown  to  clovers,  since  a  rich 
growth  of  them  comes  up  and  overtops  the  grass.  The 
explanation  is  that  the  clovers  or  their  seeds  were 
already  in  the  soil  waiting  for  favorable  conditions. 
The  coming  of  the  phosphorus  fed  the  little  plants, 
then  the  lime  sweetened  in  a  degree  the  soil,  and  the 
plants  shot  up  and  overtopped  the  grass.  Thus  the 
forage  was  much  enriched,  and  later  when  the  clover 
leaves  and  roots  decayed  the  soil  was  so  enriched 
that  the  grass  was  greatly  thickened  and  strength- 
ened. When  one  is  applying  annual  fertilization  to 
his  alfalfa  meadows  he  may  well  consider  the  use 
of  basic  slag. 

Sour  Soils. — It  may  be  asked,  "How  do  soils  be- 
come sour?"  Any  vegetable  matter  decaying  in  the 
soil  will  create  an  acid  there.  From  sweetest  apples 
is  made  the  sourest  vinegar.  Tea  leaves  put  in  a 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  137 

stone  jug  with  water  will  make  a  sour  vinegar,  as  the 
writer  tested  in  his  ranching  days.  Soil  acids  accu- 
mulate in  soils  that  have  no  lime  to  neutralize  them. 
Some  plants  grow  well  in  sour  soils,  but  not  many 
useful  plants.  Wild  things  grow  most  in  acid  soils. 
Useful  legumes  grow  poorly,  if  at  all,  with  some  ex- 
ceptions. And  alfalfa  refuses  to  grow  at  all  with 
the  soil  sour. 

How  is  one  to  judge  if  his  soil  is  sour?  If  he  is 
experienced  in  soils  he  can  tell  by  the  character  of 
plant  growth  on  the  land  whether  it  is  sweet  or  sour. 
Certain  grasses  betoken  sour  lands.  Sorrel,  or  sheep 
sorrel  (Kumex  acetosellan)  is  pretty  sure  to  come 
where  there  is  lime  deficiency,  and  sorrel  and  alfalfa 
do  not  go  well  together.  There  is  a  simple  test  that 
any  one  can  make  with  litmus  paper.  This  is  a  blue 
paper  that  can  be  bought  of  the  druggist,  usually  in 
little  slips,  stoppered  in  glass  bottles.  One  can  take 
a  slip  of  this  paper  and  some  of  the  suspected  soil, 
having  it  moist,  and  insert  half  the  length  of  the 
slip  in  the  moist  soil  and  let  it  remain  in  contact  for 
half  an  hour.  If  there  is  any  apparent  redness  in 
the  paper  be  sure  that  there  is  acidity  in  that  land. 
If  the  blue  paper  does  not  turn  red  the  land  is  at 
least  neutral.  To  test  whether  the  land  is  actually 
alkaline  with  lime,  which  it  ought  to  be  to  grow  big 
alfalfa,  expose  a  slip  of  the  paper  in  quite  weak 
vinegar  only  long  enough  to  turn  it  red,  then  insert 
it  in  the  soil  and  leave  it  for  an  hour,  having  the  soil 
moist  and  in  contact.  If  it  then  turns  blue  again 
you  may  be  sure  that  you  can  grow  it  on  that  land, 


138  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

This  then  is  true:  to  get  maximum  crops  of 
alfalfa,  to  grow  it  as  though  you  were  growing  a 
weed,  make  your  land  alkaline  with  lime,  instead  of 
having  it  acid.  Then  get  it  dry,  add  proper  amounts 
of  fertility,  and  the  only  troubles  you  will  have  will 
be  in  caring  for  the  crops  of  hay  and  some  day  in 
breaking  your  tough  alfalfa  sod. 

Where  the  Lime  Soils  Lie. — Where  probably 
are  soils  already  filled  sufficiently  with  lime,  and 
where  are  'they  deficient  from  the  standpoint  of  the 
alfalfa  plant? 

In  no  part  of  the  arid  and  semi-arid  region  has 
there  been  found  evidence  of  any  need  of  lime  in 
the  soil.  Often  there  will  be  found  from  !T/^%  to 
4%  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  those  soils.  This  would 
be  equivalent  to  from  30  to  80  tons  of  this  substance 
in  the  top  foot  of  soil  of  each  acre. 

Coming  eastward  it  is  doubtful  if  any  part  of 
Nebraska,  Kansas  or  the  Dakotas  need  lime,  except 
in  their  eastern  portions  or  in  especially  sandy  parts. 
It  seems  certain  that  the  western  portions  of  these 
states  have  lime  enough  already.  Southeastern  Kan- 
sas needs  lime,  so  doubtless  do  parts  of  Oklahoma 
and  the  Indian  Territory. 

Texas  has  a  great  diversity  of  soils.  Parts  of 
Texas  are  tremendously  supplied  with  carbonate  of 
lime.  There  alfalfa  is  almost  a  weed,  suffering  only 
from  lack  of  sufficient  rainfall.  Eastern  Texas,  on 
the  other  hand,  needs  lime  very  badly  indeed  to 
make  alfalfa  thrive.  Along  rivers  the  alluvial  soils 
are  usually  well  stored  with  lime. 


CARBONATE    OF    LIME.  139 

Arkansas  needs  lime  badly,  except  in  her  alluvial 
soils  along  the  Mississippi  Kiver.  There  one  sees 
luxuriant  alfalfa  grown.  Some  of  the  "buckshot" 
soils  of  Arkansas  have  in  them  a  great  amount  of 
lime  carbonate  and  are  destined  to  be  great  alfalfa- 
producing  regions.  The  hill  soils  and  uplands 
mostly  are  in  need  of  more  lime.  There  are  excep- 
tional areas  of  upland  that  have  already  sufficient 
lime  native  in  their  soils,  but  these  areas  have  not 
yet  been  accurately  defined. 

Missouri  grows  alfalfa  about  in  proportion  to  her 
lime  content.  In  Pemiscot  county  along  the  Missis- 
sippi River  on  "buckshot"  soil  alfalfa  grows  glori- 
ously. This  soil  contains  about  1*4%  °f  calcium 
carbonate.  Prof.  M.  F.  Miller,  of  the  Missouri  Col- 
lege of  Agriculture,  reports  that  where  about  y*  of 
1%  of  carbonate  of  lime  is  in  Missouri  soils  and 
humus  is  supplied  through  use  of  manures,  alfalfa 
thrives. 

At  this  time  (1909)  it  is  unknown  how  much  of 
Iowa  would  be  helped  by  application  of  more  lime. 
A  letter  giving  results  from  Scott  County  is  pre- 
sented on  a  preceding  page.  It  is  probable  that 
over  much  of  the  prairie  section  of  the  state  a  light 
application,  say  one  ton  to  three  tons  per  acre  of 
ground  limestone,  would  put  the  right  condition 
there  for  proper  bacterial  life  in  the  soil.  That  is 
about  all  there  is  to  it;  lime  enough  is  needed  to 
make  the  earth  swarm  with  the  right  sort  of  bac- 
teria. Lime  enough  is  needed  to  correct  any  toxic 
principle  exhaled  from  the  alfalfa  roots, 


140  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 


All  the  region  east  of  the  Mississippi  River  will 
be  helped  by  use  of  ground  limestone,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  some  favored  spots  where  glaciers  have 
already  ground  the  rocks  to  powder  and  mixed  it 
through  the  land.  Anywhere  that  alfalfa  fails  to 
thrive  after  the  land  has  been  made  dry  and  fairly 
rich  one  may  know  that  carbonate  of  lime  is  de- 
ficient. Especially  may  one  be  sure  that  all  soils 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  are  deficient  in  car- 
bonate of  lime,  and  by  supplying  this  lack  their 
capacity  for  crop  production  may  be  immensely 
increased. 

The  Chemistry  of  Lime. — In  "The  Breeder's  Ga- 
zette" of  July  14, 1909,  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins,  agron- 
omist of  the  College  of  Agriculture,  University  of 
Illinois,  sets  forth  clearly  the  chemistry  of  lime  in 
its  relation  to  soil  improvement.  I  quote  his  state- 
ment complete : 

The  use  of  lime  for  soil  improvement  is  a  subject  which  is  dis- 
cussed with  a  great  deal  of  misconception  and  confusion,  due  in 
large  part  to  the  erroneous  practice  of  referring  to  lime  as  though 
it  were  a  chemical  element. 

Lime  is  not  an  element  and  consequently  is  not  an  element  of 
plant  food.  It  is  an  alkaline  substance  and  is  known  in  three 
forms:  the  carbonate,  the  oxide  and  the  hydroxide.  The  carbonate 
is  the  natural  form  found  in  rocks  and  soils  and  it  consists  of 
either  calcium  carbonate,  magnesium  carbonate  or  a  double  com- 
pound of  calcium  magnesium  carbonate  known  as  magnesian 
limestone  or  dolomite.  When  highly  heated  these  carbonates  lose 
their  carbon  dioxide  as  a  volatile  gas  and  the  oxide  or  quicklime 
remains.  This  substance  takes  up  water  either  from  direct  appli- 
cation or  from  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere  and  changes  into 
the  form  of  hydroxide  or  water-slaked  lime.  On  long  exposure 
to  the  air  the  hydroxide  will  absorb  carbon  dioxide  from  the  air 
and  give  off  water,  thus  reforming  the  carbonate  compound.  Thus, 
we  may  say  that  calgiunj  earboaats  (CaC03),  calcium  oxide  (CaO) 


CARBONATE    OF    LIME.  141 

and  calcium  hydroxide  (Ca02H2)  are  ordinary  forms  of  lime; 
also  that  magnesium  carbonate  (MgCO3),  magnesium  oxide 
(MgO)  and  magnesium  hydroxide  (MgO.HJ  are  the  correspond- 
ing magnesium  compounds,  more  or  less  of  which  are  contained 
in  magnesian  limes,  of  which  the  most  common  form  is  calcium 
magnesium  carbonate  CaMg(C03)2.  Any  of  these  compounds 
may  be  used  for  neutralizing  acids  and  thus  for  correcting  the 
acidity  of  the  soil. 

If  it  can  be  kept  clearly  in  mind  that  these  are  the  substances 
properly  called  lime,  and  that  nothing  else  is  lime,  much  confu- 
sion can  be  avoided.  However,  a  compound  properly  named  cal- 
cium chloride  (CaCL)  is  often  called  chloride  of  lime  and  yet  it 
contains  no  lime  whatever  and  does  not  possess  the  property  of 
lime.  In  other  words,  it  is  not  an  alkaline  substance  and  has  no 
power  to  correct  the  acidity  of  the  soil.  It  does  contain  the  ele- 
ment calcium  which  is  also  contained  in  the  ordinary  forms  of 
lime,  but  the  element  calcium  is  not  lime. 

Now  let  us  turn  to  the  subject  of  plant  food.  There  are  10 
essential  elements  of  plant  food  and  it  is  true  that  calcium  is  one 
of  these  elements  and  that  it  is  required  to  a  greater  or  less  ex- 
tent by  all  agricultural  plants,  but  it  is  not  at  all  essential  that 
calcium  as  an  element  of  plant  food  be  applied  to  the  soil  in  any 
form  of  lime.  It  may  be  applied  as  calcium  sulphate  or  as  calcium 
phosphate,  and  it  even  exists  in  many  soils  which  are  absolutely 
devoid  of  lime  which  are  even  strongly  acid  and  markedly  in  need 
of  lime,  but  which,  nevertheless,  may  contain  abundance  of  cal- 
cium for  plant  food  in  the  form  of  acid  calcium  silicates.  Thus 
the  acid  soils  of  Illinois  which  require  an  application  of  several 
tons  of  ground  limestone  to  correct  their  acidity  contain  several 
tons  of  the  element  calcium  in  the  plowed  soil  of  an  acre.  In 
some  cases  soils  are  found  which  are  not  only  deficient  in  lime 
but  also  deficient  in  the  element  calcium  and  on  such  soils  the 
application  of  any  of  the  calcium  limes  would  furnish  both  lime 
for  correcting  soil  acidity  and  the  element  calcium  for  plant  food. 

Summary.— Alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful, 
most  valuable  and  most  profitable  crops  in  the 
world.  It  makes  the  most  hay.  The  hay  is  the  rich- 
est and  best.  It  enriches  the  soil  on  which  it  grows. 
It  endures  for  many  years  with  one  sowing.  It  has 
redeemed  the  arid  and  semi-arid  west,  It  is  coming 
into  every  state  in  the  Union. 


142  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Many  needless  failures  in  attempts  to  grow  alfalfa 
have  resulted  in  eastern  states.  Alfalfa  need  not  be 
a  hard  plant  to  establish.  It  is  hardier  than  red 
clover.  It  withstands  any  drouth.  It  withstands 
cold  better  than  any  other  clover.  In  some  regions 
alfalfa  seems  native  to  the  soil.  In  other  regions 
all  the  nursing  in  the  world  fails  to  establish  it.  Why 
is  this  difference? 

All  natural  alfalfa  countries  have  the  soil  filled 
with  carbonate  of  lime.  There  may  also  be  other 
alkalies  in  it,  and  sometimes  injurious  alkalies,  but 
carbonate  of  lime  is  the  useful  thing  found.  Wherever 
the  soil  is  well  stored  with  carbonate  of  lime  alfalfa 
grows  like  a  weed,  if  other  conditions  are  good. 
Where  the  soil  is  acid  no  amount  of  manure  will 
keep  alfalfa  alive  very  long. 

Carbonate  of  lime  is  the  sort  that  God  put  in  the 
soil  when  He  made  it.  Burned  lime  is  man's  at- 
tempt at  improvement.  Burned  lime  may  help  and 
may  harm.  Carbonate  of  lime,  that  is,  raw  ground 
limestone,  never  harms  soil.  It  cannot  harm  soil, 
use  it  as  freely  as  you  like.  One  could  put  on  50 
tons  to  the  acre  and  do  the  soil  no  injury.  It  would 
merely  lie  in  the  soil  inert  till  it  was  required.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  is  needed  to  make  the  bacteria  of 
alfalfa  thrive.  It  is  needed  to  free  the  soil  from 
poisons  that  destroy  both  bacteria  and  alfalfa.  Car- 
bonate of  lime  stops  waste  of  fertility,  makes  vege- 
table matter  into  humus,  arrests  fleeing  nitrogen. 

Ground  limestone  will  make  alfalfa  grow  without 
fail,  if  a  £§w  other  easily  met  conditions  are  com- 


CARBONATE  OP  LIME.  143 

plied  with.  The  amount  needed  will  vary;  all  soils 
have  already  some  lime  in  them.  Where  there  is 
marked  deficiency  apply  100  pounds  of  ground  lime- 
stone to  the  square  rod  for  alfalfa  growing.  Always 
leave  a  strip  unlimed  to  note  the  result. 

Here  are  the  few  simple  rules  needed  to  assure 
alfalfa : 

First,  water  let  out  of  the  soil  and  air  let  in  by 
drains. 

Second,  soil  made  alkaline,  not  neutral,  with 
ground  limestone. 

Third,  soil  with  some  humus  in  it,  preferably  from 
stable  manure. 

Fourth,  soil  with  phosphorus  and  a  little  potash, 
the  phosphorus  preferably  from  bone  meal  or  basic 
slag,  though  acid  phosphate  will  answer.  And  use 
enough  of  it.  Alfalfa  feeds  heavily  on  phosphorus. 

Fifth,  good  seed  mixed  with  some  soil  from  a 
good  alfalfa  field  or  from  a  sweet  clover  patch,  sown 
on  a  deeply  plowed,  firm,  fine  seed  bed,  any  time 
between  April  and  September. 

Ground  limestone  insures  vigorous  alfalfa.  Vig- 
orous alfalfa  is  the  most  energetic  soil  enricher  in 
the  world.  When  it  has  stood  a  few  years  if  it  is 
then  plowed  and  planted  to  corn  the  result  is  simply 
marvelous. 

A  field  well  set  in  productive  alfalfa  will  yield  5 
tons  to  the  acre.  This  is  easily  worth  $10  to  $15 
per  ton,  as  alfalfa  hay  is  nearly  of  the  same  value 
as  a  feed  as  wheat  bran.  Thus  you  note  that  it 
yields  good  interest  on  a  valuation  of  $250  per  acre, 


144  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Common  farm  lands  do  not  pay  well.  Invest  in 
limestone,  manure,  phosphorus,  alfalfa  seed,  make 
over  that  $75  land  into  $250  land  and  farming  will 
pay  you. 

Visiting  a  Stone  Quarry. — A  visit  to  a  limestone 
quarry  is  an  interesting  thing.  These  thoughts 
came  one  day  to  the  writer  as  he  strolled  with  a 
company  of  Ohio  State  University  agricultural  stu- 
dents beside  the  quarries  at  Columbus,  Ohio.  A 
great  mass  of  limestone  rock  rises  to  within  a  few 
feet  of  the  surface  of  the  soil.  Here  the  Scioto 
river,  cutting  its  way  through,  has  eroded  a  chan- 
nel, exposing  cliffs  of  limestone;  here  have  come 
quarrymen  seeking  to  mine  the  rock  for  building, 
for  road  ballast  and  for  grinding  to  put  upon  the 
soil. 

Upon  this  scene  burst  a  class  of  students,  eager 
and  curious  to  note  everything,  like  happy  children 
out  of  school,  climbing  over  the  heaps  of  debris, 
shouting  merry  jests  and  making  exclamations  of 
surprise  as  they  note  the  many  curious  revelations. 

Here,  by  the  railroad  embankment,  newly  made, 
spring  up  blue  grass  and  white  clovers,  their  roots 
in  the  crumbling  limestone  of  the  ballast,  eloquently 
telling  how  waste  soils  may  be  restored  and  covered 
over  with  vegetation  where  lime  is.  To  our  left  a 
tangled  jungle  of  old  dry  weed  stalks  standing  upon 
heaps  of  limestone  debris,  and  as  we  plunge  within 
this  jungle  we  find  the  weeds  are  mostly  sweet 
clover,  growing  huge  and  lusty,  laden  last  summer 
with  flower  and  yet  bearing  seeds.  Think  of  the 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  145 

myriads  of  bacteria  on  the  roots  of  this  sweet  clover, 
busily  soil  building,  getting  this  waste  land  ready 
for  more  useful  things. 

Now  we  stand  at  the  brink  of  the  quarry,  a  great 
hole  in  the  ground.  Our  gray  haired  teacher  asks 
us  if  we  know  what  is  the  most  durable  of  all  man's 
work  upon  earth,  and  smilingly  he  tells  us  that  the 
most  permanent  thing  that  man  has  ever  yet 
achieved  is  a  hole  in  the  ground.  But,  think  of 
the  human  energy  required  to  quarry  and  cart  away 
these  millions  of  tons  of  limestone  that  once  filled 
this  excavation ;  and  think  further  than  that,  to  the 
time  when  this  part  of  the  earth  was  a  shallow  sea 
where  warm  waves  rocked  endlessly  and  little  shell- 
fish swam  and  crawled,  and  dying  one  by  one,  be- 
queathed their  bones  to  make  the  limestone  that  was 
one  day  to  become  this  rock;  and  next,  the  quarry- 
men,  short,  thick,  brown  men,  hugely  muscled, 
pounding  away  upon  the  rocks  as  though  they  loved 
it.  They  too  tell  the  story  of  lime,  for  is  not  the 
island  of  Sicily  one  limestone  rock?  Yes,  and  these 
sturdy  peasants  tell  another  story,  the  story  of  the 
vigor  that  may  come  from  simple  living.  For  cen- 
turies their  food  has  been  macaroni  and  olive  oil, 
with,  let  us  hope,  an  orange  for  dessert,  and  yet  to- 
day they  can  in  physical  energy  far  surpass  the 
meat-eating  American.  And  what  are  they  doing, 
these  swarthy  Italians,  with  dynamite  mightily  shat- 
tering this  rock,  'with  steam  locomotives  dragging  it 
to  the  crushers,  and  there  dumping  it  into  yawning 
jaws  that  mightily  bite  and  chew  it  until  it  is  shaped 


146  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

for  railway  ballast  or  for  concrete  construction? 
And  here  is  another  machine,  more  interesting  yet, 
a  machine  of  prophecy,  a  machine  meaning  great 
things  to  the  farmer,  for  in  this  machine,  so  small 
and  apparently  insignificant,  the  rock  is  ground 
rapidly  into  powder  and  this  powder  through  end- 
less carriers  is  loaded  into  cars,  no  man's  hands 
touching  it  after  it  is  first  dumped,  and  from  this 
mi]l  it  goes  forth  by  cars  to  the  fields  of  Ohio.  Think 
what  this  means;  somewhere  an  old  sour  clay  field 
refusing  to  grow  clover,  refusing  to  grow  anything 
rich  enough  to  yield  profit,  sending  no  boys  to  col- 
lege, giving  little  hope  to  the  owner,  and  now  under 
one  shower  of  this  ground  limestone  will  come  the 
miracle.  The  sourness  will  disappear,  clover  will 
grow,  the  bees  will  hum,  the  mower  will  click,  the 
boy  will  whistle,  books  will  come  into  the  home  and 
magazines,  and  let  us  hope  some  lad  from  that  farm 
will  start  to  the  university. 

Building  Soils  to  Stay  Built. — My  father  was  a 
firm  believer  in  the  idea  that  a  soil  could  be  so  en- 
riched that  it  would  afterward  stay  rich,  that  it 
would  gain  momentum  enough,  so  to  speak,  so  it 
would  keep  on  caring  for  itself  afterward.  There- 
fore he  would  apply  manure  in  large  amounts  to 
one  spot  of  land  after  another,  seeking  to  establish 
this  condition  of  things. 

There  is  much  basic  truth  in  his  theory  and  his 
practice  was  not  far  wrong.  When  much  manure  is 
worked  into  sweet  soil,  a  soil  well  stored  with  car- 
bonate of  lime,  there  is  set  up  there  a  laboratory 


CARBONATE   OF   LIME.  147 

where  fertility  is  steadily  manufactured.  There 
will  be  air  in  such  a  soil  and  bacteria  in  enormous 
abundance,  among  them  the  useful  bacteria  that  live 
upon  any  sort  of  decaying  humus  in  the  soil  and 
gather  nitrogen  from  the  air,  the  new-found  azobac- 
ter.  Thus  there  is  a  perpetual  fertility-gathering 
plant  established  right  in  the  soil. 

It  all  depends,  after  all,  on  the  possession  by  the 
soil  of  a  large  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime.  If  that 
is  absent  the  fertility  put  there  in  excess  of  the 
needs  of  the  plants  soon  leaches  away  and  is  gone. 
The  writer  has  traveled  in  lands  very  deficient  in 
lime,  so  deficient  that  the  well  water  was  almost  as 
pure  as  distilled  water,  and  there  has  noted  that  not 
only  were  the  fields  incredibly  poor,  but  even  such 
places  as  barn  lots  had  in  them  very  little  richness 
indeed,  though  manure  had  been  wasted  therein  for 
a  century  or  more. 

Think  how  old  the  world  is !  And  since  the  rocks 
cooled  and  vegetation  started  to  cover  the  earth 
roots  have  been  decaying  in  the  soil  and  leaves  fall- 
ing thereon  with  stems  and  branches  and  all  man- 
ner of  debris.  Enough  vegetable  matter,  enough 
humus-forming  material,  has  fallen  to  the  earth  and 
become  buried  in  the  earth  nearly  everywhere,  to 
make  the  soil  incredibly  rich.  Instead  we  commonly 
find  even  wild  soils  rather  poor.  Why?  Because  of 
the  lack  of  carbonate  of  lime.  That  is  the  one  thing 
that  can  fix  fertility  and  hold  it  for  use  in  future 
years. 

On  the  old  farm  at  Arlington,  near  Washington,  it 


148  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

is  said  that  manure  enough  has  been  applied  since 
it  has  been  in  possession  of  the  United  States  to 
cover  the  soil  with  a  layer  several  feet  deep,  and 
yet  the  land  is  of  only  very  moderate  fertility.  Why  f 
Because  it  is  so  lacking  in  carbonate  of  lime. 

Coming  back  to  my  father's  idea  that  land  could 
be  given  such  an  impetus  towards  fertility  and  pro- 
ductiveness that  it  would  "keep  a-going "  it  should 
be  said  that  it  is  only  a  partial  truth,  after  all. 
Doubtless  the  nitrogen  content  of  the  soil  can  be 
maintained.  In  order  to  do  this  leguminous  crops 
should  come  with  somewhat  frequent  recurrence, 
since  legumes  restore  nitrogen  faster  than  anything 
else  we  know.  And  alfalfa  is  the  most  vigorous  ni- 
trogen gatherer  at  our  command.  No  one  can  store 
a  soil  with  fertility  and  draw  upon  it  with  maize 
or  oats  or  wheat  or  timothy  grass  without  rapidly 
depleting  his  store.  All  these  things  are  s'oil  rob- 
bers; they  do  not  create  or  secrete  fertility  for  the 
soil. 

Phosphorus  Needed. — Nor  can  legumes  or  alfalfa 
do  impossibilities.  The  mineral  elements  are  pres- 
ent in  fixed  amounts.  Of  potash  one  may  have  a 
great  abundance  and  on  many  soils  need  never 
worry  nor  concern  himself,  but  phosphorus  is  usual- 
ly a  thing  needed  and  not  in  sufficient  supply.  It  must 
be  remembered  that  plants  cannot  build  their  tissues, 
form  their  blooms  and  mature  their  seeds  without 
using  in  regular  "balanced  ration "  all  the  elements 
of  plant  food.  They  cannot  make  use  of  an  excess 
of  nitrogen  profitably  when  phosphorus  is  in  scant 


CARBONATE    OF    LIME.  149 

supply.  Thus  on  Woodland  Farm,  which  is  rapidly 
becoming  fertile — nearly  as  fertile,  probably,  as  it 
is  profitable  to  make  farm  land — we  find  it  wise  each 
year  to  purchase  this  one  element,  phosphorus.  We 
put  it.  on  when  we  start  alfalfa.  We  put  it  on  the 
old  alfalfa  meadows.  It  pays  largely  in  increased 
yield  and  in  increased  vigor  of  the  plants.  This 
makes  the  alfalfa  able  to  resist  weeds  and  rust  and 
all  the  enemies  of  it.  And  once  on  the  farm  much 
of  the  phosphorus  is  retained,  is  used  over  and  over 
again.  When  we  cut  the  hay  we  take  up  phosphorus, 
and  if  we  were  to  sell  the  hay  this  would  be  drained 
away  and  lost,  but  when  we  feed  the  hay  on  the 
farm,  as  we  try  to  do  with  most  of  our  crop,  we 
sell  away  only  as  much  phosphorus  as  is  contained 
in  the  wool  and  mutton  of  the  lambs  and  in  their 
bones,  and  what  goes  to  the  manure  is  pretty  care- 
fully saved  and  put  back  on  the  land.  Thus  our 
store  increases  steadily. 


MANURES  AND  HUMUS  IN  SOIL. 

I  have  dwelt  so  long  on  the  subject  of  carbonate  of 
lime  that  I  must  now  take  occasion  to  emphasize  that 
lime  is  not  sufficient  plant  food.  Lime  promotes 
bacterial  life  and  saves  plant  food  and  makes  it 
available  and  helps  it  accumulate.  After  one  has  his 
soil  well  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime,  then  he  is 
ready  to  begin  to  build  it.  If  nature  had  filled  that 
soil  with  carbonate  of  lime  ages  ago  she  would  have 
gone  on  with  the  work  and  stored  it  with  vegetable 
matter,  humus.  Then  there  would  be  now  in  that 
soil  nitrogen  and  bacteria  in  abundance,  and  prob- 
ably abundant  phosphorus  and  potash  as  well,  since 
phosphorus  is  nearly  always  in  pretty  good  supply 
where  carbonate  of  lime  is  plentiful  in  the  soil. 

Let  us  get  clearly  in  mind  here  that  liming  is  only 
a  step  in  the  soil-building  process;  it  is  the  founda- 
tion of  things,  as  it  were.  And  now  again  let  us  re- 
peat that  soils  are  living  things.  The  productive- 
ness of  the  soil  is  dependent,  upon  the  numbers  of 
bacteria  found  therein.  Bacterial  life  is  not  abun- 
dant in  soils  that  are  deficient  in  humus,  vegetable 
matter. 

Stable  Manure  Best  Source. — The  very  best  source 
of  humus  is  stable  manure.  If  the  reader  has  fol- 
!owed  the  story  of  Woodland  Farm,  related  in  the  be- 
ginning of  this  book,  he  will  have  in  mind  the  great 
part  that  manure  played  in  building  the  alfalfa 

(150) 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  151 

fields.  Early  in  our  experience  we  learned  that 
wherever  we  applied  a  good  coat  of  manure,  there 
we  got  luxuriant  alfalfa.  This  led  us  to  feed  lambs 
and  cattle  and  to  save  the  manure  with  care.  Later 
study  of  the  use  of  manure  showed  us  that  there  was 
great  waste  when  manure  was  let  stand  in  the  yard 
till  fall  before  it  was  hauled  out.  Therefore  we  made 
practice  of  drawing  it  at  once  to  the  fields  and 
spreading  it  nearly  as  fast  as  it  was  made.  This 
practice  we  yet  observe. 

Manure  in  the  soil  does  very  much  more  than  add 
fertility.  Probably  we  do  not  know  nearly  all  that 
it  does.  First,  doubtless  it  directly  feeds  the  soil. 
There  is  nitrogen  in  manure,  some  small  amount  of 
potash,  and  a  little  more  phosphorus,  though  not 
nearly  so  much  phosphorus  as  there  should  be  to 
make  a  balanced  ration  for  plants.  But  manure 
brings  in  myriads  of  bacteria.  These  bacteria  aid 
plant  life  and  plant  growth.  Where  manure  is  the 
special  nitrifying  bacteria  abound.  The  bacteria  too 
that  attach  themselves  to  alfalfa  roots  and  clover 
abound  much  more  in  soils  filled  with  manure. 

Manure  Brings  Inoculation. — It  is  seldom  if  ever 
necessary  to  inoculate  land  for  alfalfa  when  it  has 
been  well  enriched  with  manure.  I  once  saw  a  field 
sown  to  alfalfa  in  C'anada  that  was  so  well  inocu- 
lated that  in  six  weeks  after  the  alfalfa  was  sown 
the  tiny  nodules  were  found  on  the  roots,  and  this 
field  was  the  first  sown  in  that  neighborhood,  nor 
was  it  artificially  inoculated.  It  had  simply  been 
well  manured.  In  other  states  I  have  seen  the  same 


152  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

curious  result.  In  Iowa  on  the  experiment  station 
farm  at  Ames  a  field  was  sown  in  alfalfa.  All  the 
seed  was  sown  the  same  day  and  in  no  way  was  the 
treatment  of  one  part  of  the  field  different  from 
the  treatment  of  any  other  part,  yet  there  was  se- 
cured a  fine  stand  of  thrifty  alfalfa  on  one  side  of 
the  field  and  very  thin  and  poor  alfalfa  on  the  other 
side.  The  explanation  seemed  to  be  that  on  a  previ- 
ous year  one  side  of  this  field  had  been  manured  and 
sugar  beets  grown  thereon.  Yet  all  the  field  seemed 
very  fertile  and  Director  C.  F.  Curtiss  thought  that 
planted  in  corn  all  of  the  field  was  rich  enough  to 
grow  80  bushels  to  the  acre.  But  that  addition  of 
some  stable  manure  a  year  or  two  previously  made 
one  side  of  -the  field  eminently  fit  for  alfalfa,  while 
the  other  side  remained  in  unprofitable  condition  so 
far  as  alfalfa  was  concerned.  From  experience  I 
feel  sure  that  I  had  rather  take  a  rather  poor  piece 
of  land,  well  manured,  for  alfalfa  growing,  than  a 
naturally  rich  piece  of  land  with  no  manure.  In 
truth  some  of  the  heaviest  alfalfa  I  have  ever  seen 
grew  on  "Woodland  Farm  on  soil  naturally  very  in- 
fertile, though  well  filled  with  lime,  after  the  field 
had  been  well  coated  with  manure,  the  manure 
turned  under  deep  and  alfalfa  sown. 

One  day  I  was  plowing  in  this  self  same  field  when 
a  curious  thought  came.  A  flock  of  black  birds  was 
following  the  plow,  hopping  eagerly  along  and 
keeping  up  animated  discourse,  meanwhile  busily 
searching  for  something.  What  they  were  after,  of 
course,  was  earth  worms.  The  thought  then  came, 


MANURES  AND  HUMUS  IN  SOIL.  153 

"Why,  here  is  the  best  indication  yet  of  whether 
alfalfa  will  thrive  in  a  field.  If  the  black  birds  fol- 
low the  plowman  it  is  sure  to  grow ;  if  no  black  birds 
come  let  him  beware  how  he  sows  alfalfa."  It  is 
indeed  a  true  indication  for  all  eastern  soils;  there 
may  be  lands  in  the  South  and  West  where  the  earth 
worm  is  not  a  sure  indication.  Earth  worms  thrive 
only  where  there  is  humus  in  the  land.  They  do  a 
most  useful  work  in  opening  the  soil  by  means  of 
+heir  tunnels  to  let  in  air  and  let  out  water.  They 
bury  up  vegetable  matter  and  promote  bacterial 
life.  Where  earth  worms  are  the  soil  is  evidently 
drained,  although  it  may  not  be  drained  deep 
enough. 

Alfalfa  Loves  Rich  Soils. — The  plain  truth  is  that 
thousands  of  men  all  over  the  eastern  states  of 
America  have  tried  to  grow  alfalfa  on-land  too  poor 
for  it.  Alfalfa  loves  fertile  soil.  In  turn  it  adds 
greatly  to  the  fertility  of  any  land  on  which  it  grows. 
It  is  an  energetic  soil  enricher,  but  it  will  not  en- 
rich poor  soils.  That  may  be  a  pity,  but  it  is  after 
all  in  the  order  of  Nature.  "To  him  who  hath  shall 
be  given. ' '  One  must  have  fertility  in  order  to  trap 
more  fertility.  No  other  available  plant  will  gather 
so  much  fertility  as  the  alfalfa  plant.  A  field  of  it 
will  gather  nitrogen  largely,  the  hay  may  be  fed, 
the  manure  saved,  another  field  enriched  and  sown 
to  alfalfa  and  thus  the  fertility  will  spread  from  the 
one  spot  of  infection  till  all  the  farm  is  covered. 
But  only  by  beginning  right,  by  making  one  field 
rich  and  dry  and  sweet,  getting  it  set  in  alfalfa, 


154  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

then  from  the  manure  of  that  field  spreading  to  an- 
other, can  a  man  succeed.  It  is  easy  once  you  get 
started.  The  farther  you  go  the  faster  the  work 
proceeds.  I  write  now  of  rather  poor  eastern 
soils.  Of  course  there  are  soils  already  so  rich  in 
all  needed  elements  of  plant  food  that  it  is  idle  to 
add  more,  Men  owning  such  soils  are  more  blessed 
than  they  probably  realize. 

Soils  Devoid  of  Humus. — Will  not  alfalfa  grow  in 
soils  devoid  of  humus!  It  is  an  interesting  ques- 
tion. I  feel  that  it  will,  under  certain  conditions. 
There  are  desert  soils  that  would  seem  to  be  almost 
devoid  of  vegetable  matter,  yet  fully  charged  with 
mineral  salts  and  in  these  I  have  seen  the  most  tre- 
mendous alfalfa  that  I  have  ever  seen.  Perhaps 
there  was  more  humus  in  that  gray-colored  lime- 
impregnated  alkaline  soil  than  I  thought,  but  it 
certainly  was  as  hard  as  brick  when  dry  and  of  the 
color  of  lime  mortar.  It  is  sure,  however,  that  in 
eastern  soils  humus  is  most  desirable;  how  indis- 
pensable it  is  remains  to  be  worked  out. 

An  Example  of  Farm  Practice. — On  Woodland 
Farm  there  is  one  60-acre  field  commonly  called  the 
Gill  field.  It  has  not  long  been  a  part  of  the  farm. 
The  soil  was  clay,  some  of  it  white  and  some  of  it 
black.  A  part  of  the  field  was  low  and  peaty.  For 
many  years  it  had  probably  not  paid  the  cost  of  cul- 
tivation. It  had  had  little  or  no  manure  since  the 
forest  was  cleared  away. 

The  first  step  was  to  get  rid  of  surplus  water  and 
miles  of  ditches  were  laid,  one  of  them  to  give  out- 


MANURES  AND  HUMUS  IN   SOIL.  155 

let  being  for  some  distance  10  to  12  feet  deep.  The 
usual  depth  was  3  to  4  feet.  Then  a  very  little  stable 
manure  was  spread  over  the  field  and  red  clover 
was  sown  with  beardless  spring  barley  as  a  nurse 
crop.  With  the  clover  was  sown  a  fertilizer  com- 
posed of  tankage  and  acid  phosphate.  The  barley 
was  cut  oft'  for  hay  and  the  clover  came  on  and  made 
a  fair  growth.  It  was  a  good  stand  and  had  a 
healthy  look,  which  no  one  remembered  seeing  on 
this  field  for  many  years.  The  clover  was  cut  for 
hay  and  seed,  and  a  trifle  more  of  manure  spread 
over  the  ground.  It  is  evident  that  on  a  60  acre  field 
one  will  not  strew  manure  very  thickly  unless  he  has 
access  to  a  very  large  store,  and  only  the  farm  barns 
and  feeding  yards  could  be  drawn  upon. 

The  land  was  then  plowed  and  planted  to  corn, 
making  about  55  bushels  per  acre.  Its  previous  crop 
had  been  about  20  bushels.  On  the  corn  stubble 
more  manure  was  spread  in  1904  and  again  the  land 
was  sown  to  clover  with  a  nurse  crop  of  beardless 
spring  barley.  This  time  it  was  hoped  that  the  field 
might  be  dry  enough  and  fertile  enough  to  take  al- 
falfa, so  a  mixture  of  alfalfa,  was  put  with  the 
clover,  about  10  per  cent  or  a  little  mo>re.  Again  the 
barley  was  made  into  hay. 

This  time  the  clover  was  a  glorious  success,  yield- 
ing more  than  double  what  it  had  yielded  the  first 
year  and  the  alfalfa  came  in  strong  for  the  second 
cutting.  It  was  vigorous  over  nearly  all  the  field. 
In  the  spring  of  1906  the  field  was  again  sprinkled 
somewhat  with  manure  and  plowed  for  corn.  The 


156  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

yield  that  year  was  about  90  bushels.  Again  with 
a  light  coating  of  manure  it  was  put  in  corn.  This 
time  the  yield  was  85  bushels.  For  the  corn  crop  a 
dressing  of  400  pounds  per  acre  of  raw  Tennessee 
rock  phosphate  was  applied.  Just  what  effect  this 
had  we  do  not  know,  as  we  left  no  test  strips.  It 
probably  was  of  material  benefit,  however. 

Once  more  a  light  application  of  manure  was 
made.  In  truth  the  applications  of  manure  were  all 
light  except  on  certain  spots  of  exceptionally  poor 
white  clay.  The  land  was  plowed  again  and  seeded 
(in  April,  1908),  to  alfalfa  with  a  nurse  crop,  as 
usual,  of  beardless  spring  barley.  With  the  seeding 
was  sown  fertilizer,  plain  acid  phosphate,  analyzing 
about  16  per  cent  available  phosphoric  acid,  at  the 
rate  of  250  pounds  per  acre. 

1908  proved  a  very  dry  summer  yet  a  splendid 
stand  resulted  over  the  whole  field.  A  crop  of  bar- 
ley hay  was  cut  and  later  a  light  crop  of  alfalfa 
hay,  probably  not  quite  one  ton  to  the  acre.  From 
the  window  where  I  sit  I  look  out  afield  across  this 
very  stretch  of  land.  It  is  (May  5,  1909,)  a  glorious 
sight.  Aside  from  a  few  wet  pond  holes  there  is  not 
a  square  foot  of  the  land  that  is  not  covered  with 
green  and  growing  alfalfa  plants.  That  field  should 
make  near  5  tons  of  hay  this  year.  And  every  year 
since  the  manure  spreader  started  over  the  tiled 
fields  the  land  has  paid  well. 

It  is  not  probable  that  alfalfa  would  have  made  a 
strong  growth  on  this  field  without  this  slow  bring- 
ing-up  process.  The  land  was  too  run  down,  too  de- 


MANURES   AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  157 

pleted  of  humus.  Could  more  manure  have  been 
spared  doubtless  the  field  could  have  been  gotten 
ready  for  alfalfa  earlier,  but  it  was  not  available, 
so  red  clover,  which  is  less  exacting,  came  in  first 
and  paved  the  way. 

Methods  of  Using  Manure. — While  there  can  be 
no  question  of  the  value  of  manure  for  alfalfa  yet 
there  are  several  ways  of  using  it,  some  much  more 
successful  than  others.  It  is  seldom  good  practice  to 
apply  heavy  coats  of  manure  and  at  once  sow  al- 
falfa. The  trouble  is  from  the  strong  growth  of 
weeds  and  annual  grasses  that  will  result  and  which 
may  in  part  smother  the  alfalfa.  Manure  is  often 
filled  with  weed  seeds,  has  tendency  to  rush  rapidly 
all  weeds  that  naturally  spring  up  and  these  worth- 
less things  outgrow  the  little  alfalfa  plants.  Weeds 
may  usually  be  subdued  by  mowing  off  the  field 
two  or  three  times  during  the  season,  but  there  is 
danger  in  mowing  young  alfalfa  at  the  wrrong  time 
which  sometimes  destroys  it.  Briefly,  alfalfa  ought 
not  to  be  cut  till  little  shoots  appear  on  the  bases  of 
the  stems.  These  shoots  appear  as  buds  which  de- 
velop into  new  stems.  Before  these  shoots  appear 
it  sometimes  quite  destroys  alfalfa  to  cut  it  off ;  this 
is  especially  true  the  first  season  of  its  existence.  So 
one  can  not  mow  off  weeds  till  these  little  shoots 
come.  The  writer  has  more  than  once  seen  efforts 
made  to  force  alfalfa  to  grow  by  heavy  manuring 
when  what  it  really  needed  was  liming.  The  only 
result  was  a  worse  crowding  by  weeds. 

It  is  very  much  better  to  apply  a  heavy  coat  of 


158  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

manure  and  plow  it  under  the  preceding  year,  then 
plant  a  crop  of  corn  and  keep  the  crop  absolutely 
clean  of  weeds  and  grass  so  that  no  seeds  will  be 
formed.  This  gives  pretty  clean  land  for  alfalfa 
sowing  the  succeeding  year.  Impossible  to  keep 
corn  land  clean,  say  you?  It  is  neither  impossible 
nor  very  difficult.  On  Woodland  Farm  it  has  been 
found  that  about  5  plowings  with  two-horse  culti- 
vators followed  with  two  goings  through  with  one- 
horse  garden  cultivators  of  the  many  shoveled  type, 
kept  the  corn  almost  absolutely  clean,  and  men  with 
hoes  rapidly  completed  the  work.  A  good  stand 
of  corn  greatly  helps  here. 

Eradicating  Fox-tail  Grass. — Fox-tail  or  pigeon 
grass  (Chaetochloa  glauca)  is  one  of  the  worst  ene- 
mies of  alfalfa  in  all  eastern  America.  It  is  an  an- 
nual grass  that  becomes  very  thick  in  young  mead- 
ows and  sometimes  in  old  ones.  Mowing  it  off  does 
not  prevent  its  going  to  seed,  in  fact  mowing  it  off 
only  seems  to  make  it  grow  thicker.  It  cannot  be 
eradicated  by  disking  in  new  alfalfa  fields.  Take  it  all 
in  all  it  is  the  worst  pest  of  alfalfa  in  the  eastern 
states.  Crab  grass  is  next  to  it,  but  crab  grass  does 
not  trouble  where  there  is  plenty  of  lime  in  the  soil, 
while  fox-tail  is  no  respecter  of  lime  or  anything 
else. 

Fortunately  fox-tail  has  its  weak  point;  its  seeds 
do  not  live  long  in  the  soil  but  soon  germinate  there 
and  grow.  On  Woodland  Farm  we  have  kept  a  corn 
field  absolutely  clean  for  one  year,  and  next  season 
sown  the  land  to  alfalfa,  with  the  result  that  we  did 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS  IN   SOIL.  159 

not  see  a  single  plant  of  fox-tail  on  a  square  rod, 
and  this  over  a  great  part  of  the  field.  Just  destroy 
the  plant  absolutely  before  it  seeds  during  one  year 
and  you  have  it  conquered. 

Growing  Humus-making  Crops. — Not  every  farm- 
er has  access  to  a  manure  heap.  Some  have  too 
much  land,  some  have  too  few  animals.  Thus  many 
who  wish  to  grow  alfalfa  desire  to  grow  on  the  land 
some  crop  that  will  help  fill  the  soil  with  needed 
humus.  What  is  available  for  this  purpose!  Very 
much  depends  here  upon  the  location. 

Cowpeas. — In  Tennessee,  and  probably  in  Ken- 
tucky, the  cowpea  is  a  good  forerunner  of  alfalfa. 
The  cowpea  has  several  excellent  qualities.  If  a 
vigorous  growing  variety  is  chosen  it  covers  the  soil 
all  over  and  shades  it.  This  shade  promotes  the 
gathering  of  nitrogen  as  we  have  long  known.  The 
pea  vines  smother  weeds  and  so  help  clean  the  land. 
Their  roots,  abundantly  supplied  with  nodules, 
gather  nitrogen  and  store  it  in  the  soil.  After  cow- 
peas  the  soil  is  also  much  more  friable  than  it  was 
before.  The  vines  may  be  left  to  lay  upon  the  land, 
disking  them  and  turning  them  under,  or  may  be 
cut  off  for  hay.  Certainly  one  gets  more  humus  to 
turn  them  under.  In  the  South  a  crop  of  cowpeas 
may  be  grown  and  the  land  plowed  and  sown  to  al- 
falfa the  same  year.  This  is  not  practicable  north 
of  the  Ohio  River.  Morgan  found  in  Tennessee  a 
very  great  increase  in  alfalfa  yield  when  it  was 
sown  after  cowpeas. 

Turning  Under  Green  Cowpeas. — There  seems  a 


160  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

somewhat  greater  danger  of  souring  land  when 
green  crops  are  turned  under  than  when  they  are 
left  to  ripen  and  decay  somewhat  on  the  surface  be- 
fore being  turned  under.  It  is  not  easy  to  account 
for  this  fact.  It  is  always  well  when  turning  under 
cover  crops  where  alfalfa  is  to  be  sawn  to*  use  a 
larger  application  of  lime  than  one  otherwise  would 
use,  since  thus  he  avoids  the  danger  of  souring  the 
land. 

Cowpeas  however,  may  do  soils  good  and  may  pos- 
sibly do  them  harm.  It  has  been  taught  that  cow- 
peas  always  build  soil,  whether  the  vines  are  taken 
away  or  left  on  the  soil  to  be  turned  under.  Prof. 
C.  A,  Mooers  of  the  Tennessee  Station  has  shown 
that  cowpeas  when  cut  and  removed  from  the  soil 
have  a  marked  effect  in  depleting  it  of  fertility. 
Probably  they  rob  it  rapidly  of  available  phos- 
phorus. It  is  plain  that  when  cowpeas  are  grown 
to  prepare  the  land  for  alfa'lfa  seeding  they  ought  to 
be  turned  under,  not  taken  away  from  the  land. 
"Cut  them  and  put  the  manure  back!"  Yes,  but 
would  it  come  back? 

The  Soy  Bean. — An  easier  crop  to  grow  than  the 
cowpea  is  the  soy  bean,  and  it  also  is  a  soil  enricher 
and  affords  much  humus  when  turned  under.  Soy 
beans  are  of  many  sorts.  The  large  growing  kinds, 
like  the  Mammoth  Yellow,  make  the  most  vegetation 
for  turning  under,  while  smaller  growing  sorts  make 
most  seed  in  northern  latitudes.  Soy  beans  to  do 
well  need  soil  inoculation.  It  will  come  of  itself  if 
they  are  continuously  grown  on  the  same  land.  Soy 


MANURES  AND  HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  161 

beans  are  drilled  in  drills  about  24  inches  apart  and 
cultivated  carefully  till  they  cover  the  land,  when 
their  shade  suppresses  weeds. 

To  get  a  money  crop  out  of  soy  beans  and  yet 
have  a  hot  of  humus-making  material  is  easy.  One 
does  it  with  hogs,  turning  them  in  after  the  bean 
crop  is  mature  and  letting  them  harvest  the  beans. 
Afterward  the  stems  remaining  with  many  leaves 
will  be  plowed  down. 

Soy  beans  respond  well  to  fertilization  with  phos- 
phatic  fertilizers.  The  larger  grows  the  soil-build- 
ing crop,  whether  of  soy  beans,  cowpeas,  crimson 
clover  or  anything  else,  the  larger  the  alfalfa  will 
grow  after  it.  Therefore  fertilizer  applied  to  the 
cover  crop  is  all  to  the  good. 

Crimson  Clover  (Trifolium  incarnatum). — One  of 
the  most  charmingly  beautiful  clovers  is  crimson 
clover,  the  trifolium  of  the  English  farmer.  It  is 
an  annual  clover.  Sown  in  summer  it  makes  a  fall 
and  winter  growth  (if  there  is  any  open  weather) 
blooms  in  May,  ripens  its  seed  and  dies.  It  is  of 
no  use  sown  in  the  spring.  It  is  much  used  in  Eng- 
land, France  and  the  Middle  Atlantic  States  of 
America.  It  is  a  good  forerunner  of  alfalfa.  This 
plant  is  remarkably  cold-resistant  and  in  suitable 
soils  grows  during  every  warm  spell  of  winter.  It 
enriches  soils  admirably  if  it  has  itself  the  right 
bacteria  at  work  on  its  roots.  On  some  soils  where 
it  is  new  it  needs  inoculation.  Crimson  clover  is 
sown  in  late  summer  or  early  fall,  usually  as  a 
catch  crop  after  corn  or  garden  truck.  It  makes 


162  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

rapid  growth  during  the  late  season  and  starts  early 
in  spring. 

It  is  easily  established  if  sown  in  late  July  or 
August.  It  will  not  endure  heat  so  is  of  no  use 
sown  in  the  spring.  It  grows  during  cool  weather. 
On  the  other  hand  it  will  not  endure  extremely 
cold  weather,  and  is  usually  killed  by  repeated  freez- 
ing and  thawing  of  spring  in  the  region  of  the  corn- 
belt.  It  is  especially  at  home  in  Maryland,  Dela- 
ware, New  Jersey,  Virginia,  and  in  fact  all  along 
the  Atlantic  seaboard.  There  it  is  an  admirable 
catch  crop  and  forerunner  of  alfalfa  when  one  is 
desirous  of  bringing  in  large  areas  to  meadow  with 
least  possible  delay. 

Eoberts  -shows  that  the  fall  growth  of  crimson 
clover  in  New  York,  taken  on  Nov.  2,  yielded  as 
much  as  155  Ibs.  of  nitrogen  per  acre  and  doubt- 
less the  spring  growth  would  have  yielded  in  ad- 
dition even  a  greater  amount  had  not  the  plants 
killed  out  during  the  freezes  of  spring.  Nitrogen  is 
difficult  to  buy  for  less  than  15  cents  per  pound  and 
often  costs  much  more,  so  it  is  clear  that  the  crim- 
son clover  had  done  a  lot  of  work  at  nitrogen-gath- 
ering very  economically  indeed. 

Using  Crimson  Clover. — A  good  way  to  use  crim- 
son clover  is  to  sow  it  in  the  corn  at  last  working, 
or  to  disk  up  an  oat  or  wheat  stubble  and  sow  it 
there.  The  latter  way  will  give  sure  results.  Use 
phosphorus  in  some  form  to  stimulate  the  crimson 
clover,  since  the  better  it  thrives  the  more  it  will 
do  for  you  and  all  will  be  kept  in  the  soil  for  the 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  163 

use  of  the  succeeding  alfalfa  in  any  case.  Acid  phos- 
phate works  well  with  crimson  clover;  put  on  200 
pounds  of  it  per  acre,  choosing  always  a  grade 
analyzing  a  good  percentage  of  available  phosphoric 
acid.  It  likes  a  good  seed  bed  too.  Mix  with 
it  10  per  cent  of  alfalfa,  and  if  the  land  has  never 
had  on  it  either  alfalfa  or  crimson  clover,  get  some 
infected  earth  from  an  old  field  of  each  of  the  plants. 

Infecting  a  Field. — One  can  use  rather  a  small 
amount  of  earth  and  get  good  results  in  inoculat- 
ing a  field  if  he  does  it  in  the  right  manner.  Let 
him  get  as  little  as  100  pounds  of  earth  from  where 
crimson  clover  has  been  grown  and  50  pounds  of 
earth  from  an  alfalfa  field  or  a  sweet  clover  patch 
and  mix  these  together  and  pulverize  them  well.  Do 
this  away  from  the  sun.  Then  mix  the  crimson 
clover  seed,  say  15  pounds  and  say  2  pounds  of 
alfalfa  seed  with  the  150  pounds  of  infected  soil. 
Sow  this  altogether  on  an  acre  of  land.  Sow  it 
if  you  can  late  in  the  day,  or  at  any  event  follow 
the  sower  with  a  harrow  that  will  at  once  stir  the 
land  and  cover  seed  and  infected  soil.  Sunlight  is 
fatal  to  inoculation. 

The  result  will  Be  that  both  sorts  of  plants  will 
grow  well  together  and  the  alfalfa  plants,  while 
much  more  feeble  in  growth  than  the  crimson  clover, 
will  yet  hold  its  own  pretty  bravely  and  will  be- 
come inoculated  and  thus  will  prepare  the  land  for 
a  single  seeding  of  alfalfa  next  year. 

Crimson  Clover  for  Pasture  and  Hay. — The  crim- 
son clover  will  make  good  pasture  in  the  fall  and 


164  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

early  spring.  Do  not  pasture  it  much  if  you  wish 
the  full  benefit  of  its  nitrogen-gathering  and  humus- 
making.  Before  the  seed  forms,  and  as  early  as  it 
flowers,  it  can  be  made  into  hay.  Crimson  clover  hay 
is  nutritious,  only  when  cut  too*  late  it  has  a  bad 
habit  of  sometimes  killing  animals  by  forming  hair 
balls  in  their  stomachs,  so  it  is  best  to  let  it 
ripen  and  take  off  a  crop  of  seed,  putting  the  straw 
back,  or  else  to  plow  it  under  and  use  all  the  growth 
as  a  manure.  Do  not  expect  crimson  clover  to  do 
much  without  inoculation.  This  comes  in  more 
easily  with  crimson  clover  than  with  most  other 
legumes. 

Alfalfa  Following  Crimson  Clover. — As  soon  as 
the  crimson  clover  is  turned  under  begin  cultiva- 
tion of  the  land  and  get  it  in  fine  tilth,  destroying 
any  weeds  that  may  spring  up.  Do  not  sow  the 
alfalfa  seed  till  the  soil  is  well  stored  with  moisture. 
After  every  rain  go  over  the  field  with  some  efficient 
sort  of  harrow.  If  the  land  is  not  hard  a  spike 
tooth  drag  harrow  is  one  of  the  best  implements 
of  summer  culture.  Should  rain  make  it  hard  and 
in  danger  of  baking,  the  disk  or  spring  tooth  may 
be  needed. 

The  lime  may  be  put  on  now,  though  it  would 
have  been  better  to  have  put  it  on  before  the  crim- 
son clover  was  sown  so  that  it  could  be  doing  its 
quiet  work  of  sweetening  the  land. 

As  soon  as  the  land  is  stored  with  moisture,  say 
by  the  last  week  in  July  or  some  time  in  August, 
the  alfalfa  may  be  sown  alone.  One  ought  to  ob- 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  165 

serve  carefully  the  scattered  alfalfa  plants  that 
grew  in  the  crimson  clover  to  see  if  they  were  in- 
oculated, so  as  to  know  whether  to  do  anything 
further  toward  inoculation  of  the  land  before  sow- 
ing to  alfalfa  alone. 

Nodules  on  the  Roots. —  If  he  finds  the  alfalfa 
plants  vigorous,  of  thrifty  growth  and  dark  green 
color,  he  may  make  a  good  guess  that  they  are  safely 
inoculated.  If  they  are  feeble,  pale,  spindling,  yel- 
low, he  may  well  doubt  the  inoculation  having 
"taken."  To  make  sure  let  him  very  carefully  dig 
up  alfalfa  plants  and  wash  off  the  earth  from  their 
finer  root  hairs.  The  nodules  are  easily  seen  when 
present,  though  one  can  seldom  get  them  by  pulling 
up  a  plant,  since  they  are  so  easily  stripped  off, 
their  attachment  to  the  roots  being  delicate.  They 
are  of  light  color,  about  the  size  of  alfalfa  seeds  or 
a  little  smaller  and  are  sometimes,  when  conditions 
are  good  and  lime  is  plentiful  in  the  soil,  set  on 
like  bunches  of  grapes,  though  usually  they  are 
found  singly  on  the  little  root  hairs. 

Crimson  Clover  in  Conclusion. — Crimson  clover 
is  a  plant  better  adapted  to  cool  weather  than  to  hot, 
to  England  and  France,  where  it  thrives,  than  to 
regions  where  grows  the  royal  maize  plant.  In  Eng- 
land it  is  termed  trifolium  and  is  highly  esteemed 
for  soiling  in  May.  It  thrives  best  in  sandy  soils 
along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  and  will  probably  never 
be  of  much  importance  west  of  the  Allegheny  Moun- 
tains or  north  of  the  Ohio  River.  But  in  Virginia 
it  is  a  great  aid  in  getting  alfalfa  set  on  old  fields 


166  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

needing  humus  sadly.  It  has  failed  in  countless  in- 
stances because  of  lack  of  inoculation.  If  one  wishes 
to  grow  it  he  should  either  inoculate  with  soil  from 
some  successful  crimson  clover  field  or  should  per- 
sist year  after  year  in  growing  it  on  the  same  soil 
till  at  last  the  inoculation  comes.  There  seems 
a  wild  clover  along  the  Atlantic  Coast  that  carries 
the  same  bacteria  as'  crimson  clover  but  this  is  not 
found  west  of  the  Alleghenies.  With  proper  inocu- 
lation crimson  clover  will  succeed  over  a  far  wider 
territory  than  is  now  known  or  supposed. 

Melilotus  or  Sweet  Clover. — What  is  a  weed?  A 
plant  out  of  place?  Weeds  there  are  and  weeds.  If 
one  must  have  them,  and  usually,  he  will,  he  could 
hardly  have  a  better  one  than  Melilotus  alba,  or 
white  sweet  clover.  There  are  two  sorts  of  sweet 
clover,  one  with  white  blooms  and  one  with  yellow. 
The  yellow-flowered  sort  is  Melilotus  officinalis.  It 
is  not  so  good  as  the  white  nor  so  common.  Sweet 
clover  looks  like  alfalfa.  Indeed,  it  is  a  sort  of  first 
cousin  to  the  alfalfa  plant.  The  main  difference  is 
that  it  has  a  less  deeply  boring  root  stock  and  is  a 
biennial,  or  a  two-year  plant,  while  alfalfa  may  live 
half  a  century.  Sweet  clover  is  a  good  sort  of  weed, 
because  it  is  not  unsightly  and  it  feeds  the  bees  and 
wherever  it  grows  it  mightily  enriches  land.  It 
loves  lime  land  and  hard  places  along  roadsides  and 
on  railway  embankments.  It  will  grow  6  or  8  feet 
high  in  favorable  places  or  if  it  is  cut  down  close  it 
will  bear  seed  when  only  just  above  the  earth. 

It  was  Dr.  Cyril  G.  Hopkins  who  first  called  at- 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS  IN  SOIL.  167 

tention  to  the  fact  that  alfalfa  and  sweet  clover 
bear  the  same  bacteria  on  their  rootlets  and  that 
sweet  clover  inoculates  land  for  alfalfa.  (Breeder's 
Gazette,  Sept.  16,  1903.)  So  there  is  quite  a  use- 
ful combination  of  facts.  Sweet  clover  is  very 
hardy,  it  will  grow  on  poor  soil,  it  enriches  soil  very 
much  and  it  improves  the  physical  condition  of  soils, 
then  it  inoculates  the  land  for  alfalfa.  In  truth 
many  fine  fields  of  alfalfa  have  had  their  start  from 
inoculation  taken  from  sweet  clover  weed  patches 
along  roadsides. 

Melilotus  has  never  been  treated  as  a  farm  crop  in 
the  North.  In  the  South  it  is  much  used  in  Alabama 
and  Mississippi,  both  as  pasture  and  for  hay.  No 
better  authority  on  meliMus  could  be  found  than 
Prof.  J.  F.  Duggar,  Director  of  the  Alabama  ex- 
periment station.  I  quote  from  a  letter  from  him: 

In  reply  to  your  request,  I  give  you  the  following  data  on 
Melilotus  alba  (sweet  clover),  as  it  is  grown  in  the  central 
prairie  belt  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi. 

The  seed  should  be  sown  in  February  and  lightly  covered.  It 
may  be  sown  either  on  ground  devoted  entirely  to  this  crop  or 
sown  with  seed  oats  or  among  growing  plants  of  fall-sown  oats. 
At  least  one  bushel  of  unhulled  seed  per  acre  is  needed.  If  sown 
alone  and  on  good  land  there  will  usually  be  one  or  two  cuttings 
the  first  year.  If  sown  with  oats  as  a  nurse  crop  and  on  poor 
land,  the  first  year's  growth  will  scarcely  be  sufficient  for  cut- 
ting, but  will  afford  a  fair  amount  of  pasturage. 

The  second  year  new  shoots  spring  from  the  old  crowns  early 
in  March  and  the  first  cuttings  of  hay  can  be  made  early  in  May. 
There  is  usually  a  second  cutting.  Melilotus  should  be  cut  when 
just  beginning  to  bloom,  since  after  this  date  it  rapdly  becomes 
woody.  The  hay,  especially  that  secured  the  year  the  seed  are 
sown,  is  very  nutritious,  the  composition  resembling  that  of 
alfalfa,  though  melilotus  hay  contains  a  smaller  proportion  of 
leaves,  and  the  stems  are  coarser,  especially  in  the  hay  secured 
the  second  year  of  the  plant's  life.  At  first  live  stock  do  not 


168  ALFALFA   FARMING     IN    AMERICA. 

relish  either  the  hay  or  the  green  plant,  but  in  time  most  ani- 
mals eat  both  with  apparent  relish,  though  always  preferring 
grass  and  other  legumes. 

Sweet  clover  seeds  abundantly  in  its  second  year  of  growth 
and  will  thus  occupy  the  land  continuously  if  not  destroyed  by 
cultivation.  It  never  makes  a  full  stand  except  on  lime  land. 
Soil  deficient  in  lime,  but  made  up  largely  of  clay,  often  pro- 
duces individual  plants  of  thrifty  growth,  but  I  have  never  seen 
on  such  land  a  stand  thick  enough  to  be  profitable.  The  chief 
value  of  melilotus  is  for  the  renovation  of  the  stiff,  waxy,  lime 
soils  of  the  central  prairie  regions  of  Alabama  and  Mississippi 
where  the  subsoil  is  a  soft  or  rotten  limestone. 

In  Alabama  yellow  melilotus  is  not  at  all  comparable  in  value 
with  white  melilotus. 

The  yellow  comes  up  earlier  in  winter,  blooms  in  April,  and 
is  dead  by  June.  It  never  attains  the  size  of  either  top  or  root 
attained  by  sweet  clover  and  hence  is  not  equal  as  a  renovating 
plant.  Moreover,  the  bitter  principle  is  much  stronger  in  yellow 
melilotus,  so  strong  indeed  as  to  taint  the  milk  and  butter  made 
from  it,  a  condition  that  rarely  if  ever  occurs  with  white  meli- 
lotus. 

Note  the  curious  fact  that  sweet  clover  like  alfalfa 
revels  in  lime  land.  I  have  seen  it  growing  with 
great  luxuriance  in  piles  of  crushed  limestone  rail- 
way ballast  where  one  would  hardly  think  any  plant 
could  find  sustenance,  but  that  railway  ballast  was 
of  limestone  and  full  of  limestone  dust. 

Use  of  Sweet  Clover. — Here  would  seem  to  be  the 
correct  use  of  melilotus,  for  making  land  ready  for 
alfalfa.  If  it  is  land  deficient  in  lime  put  on  ground 
limestone  enough  to  make  it  alkaline,  or  else  use 
burned  lime  if  the  ground  limestone  can  not  be  had. 
Then  in  case  the  land  needs  humus  and  fertility  to 
be  made  ready  for  alfalfa,  sow  to  melilotus  for  two 
years.  There  is  no  magic  about  melilotus  probably 
aside  from  the  magic  of  its  bacteria,  and  it  will 
grow  the  better  for  fertilization,  so  fertilize  it  with 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL.  169 

an  application  of  about  250  pounds  per  acre  of  high 
grade  acid  phosphate  or  some  better  phosphate  car- 
rier. Inoculate  the  seed  when  it  is  sown.  That  is 
easily  done  if  one  can  get  earth  from  some  alfalfa 
field  or  some  sweet  clover  patch.  Not  much  earth 
is  needed;  100  pounds  of  earth  is  ample  for  an  acre. 
Dry  the  earth  in  the  shade,  spreading  it  out  on  the 
barn  floor,  and  shoveling  it  over  now  and  then,  mak- 
ing it  fine.  Mix  the  earth  with  the  melilotus  seed 
and  sow  together.  Melilotus  seed  is  sometimes  seen 
in  the  hull,  though  seedsmen  usually  sell  the 
cleaned  seed.  It  resembles  alfalfa  seed  almost  ex- 
actly, being  sometimes  a  trifle  larger.  It  weighs 
60  pounds  to  the  bushel  cleaned.  To  sow  15  pounds 
per  acre  of  cleaned  seed  would  doubtless  give  a 
stand.  Mix  this  with  the  100  pounds  of  inoculated 
soil  and  sow  together,  for  thin  land  long  run  with- 
out manure,  land  too  poor  for  alfalfa.  If  it  is  rich 
soil  one  would  best  sow  alfalfa  at  once  and  be  done 
with  it,  but  if  the  soil  needs  building  first,  probably 
the  sweet  clover  plant  is  as  good  a  thing  as  one  can 
build  with.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  worn  soils 
(after  liming  or  naturally  filled  with  lime)  in  south- 
ern states. 

No  Fear  of  Pest. — Some  fear  may  be  entertained 
lest  the  sweet  clover  becomes  a  pest  in  the  land. 
There  is  no  danger  of  that.  Simply  mowing  the 
plant  will  destroy  it  as  it  is  a  biennial  and  must 
seed  every  second  year.  It  often  appears  in  alfalfa 
fields  the  first  and  second  years  after  starting  and 
sometimes  the  seedsmen  are  harshly  criticised  for 


170  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

selling  adulterated  alfalfa  seed.  Nearly  all  western 
seed  will  contain  a  little  sweet  clover  seed  and  no 
seedsman  probably  can  detect  it  or  clean  it  out.  It 
is  not  a  serious  injury  to  the  alfalfa  and  disappears 
completely  the  third  year  when  the  alfalfa  is  mown 
off  in  regular  rotation.  There  is  never  any  difficulty 
in  getting  rid  of  melilotus  when  one  gets  ready  to 
dispose  of  it.  It  is  very  much  hardier  than  alfalfa 
and  probably  a  better  forager  for  plant  food;  cer- 
tainly it  thrives  on  poorer  soil  than  alfalfa  does  and 
it  does  very  much  to  make  the  land  ready  for  alfalfa 
wherever  it  grows.  It  does  not  ask  for  as  deeply 
drained  land  as  do'es  alfalfa.  On  the  other  hand 
animals  usually  scorn  to  eat  it,  though  I  have  seen 
it  eaten  with  relish  by  sheep,  pigs  and  cows  in 
Alabama,  and  the  animals  throve. 

The  seed  usually  sells  a  little  cheaper  than  alfalfa. 
Should  there  develop  much  demand  for  it  there 
would  be  large  profit  in  producing  seed  on  suitable 
soil,  since  it  seeds  very  freely  almost  anywhere, 
while  alfalfa  does  not. 

Melilotus  in  Kentucky. — As  indicative  of  what 
melilotus  is  doing  in  Kentucky  we  quote  the  follow- 
ing extracts  from  letters  written  by  J..  T.  Mardis, 
from  Pendleton  County: 

As  an  illustration  of  its  value,  I  will  explain  that  seventeen 
years  ago  I  bought  one  hundred  acres  of  as  badly  worn  and 
washed  land  as  could  be  found  anywhere,  My  first  resolve  and 
constant  efforts  following  was  to  improve  and  get  in  grass,  and 
to  obtain  these  results  I  worked  all  my  spare  time,  year 
after  year,  filling  washes  with  any  material  to  be  had,  plowing, 
harrowing  and  sowing  grass  seeds  and  seeds  of  many  different 
plants  advertised  and  recommended  for  improving  land,  for  which 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS  IN   SOIL.  171 

I  spent  hundreds  of  dollars,  but  as  the  land  was  too  poor  to  take 
in  grass  to  do  any  good,  the  labor  and  seed  were  lost,  as  the 
condition  of  the  land  grew  worse  with  each  season  until  seven 
years  ago,  when  I  took  up  sweet  clover,  with  the  result  that  to- 
day the  land  is  in  fine  shape,  either  being  cultivated  and  produc- 
ing good  crops  or  in  fine  blue  grass  sod,  and  while  producing  this 
effect  the  land  yielded  an  abundance  of  pasture  and  hay.  And 
oh,  what  a  relief  to  be  rid  of  the  sight  of  those  unsightly  barren 
and  washed  hillsides. 

It  is  a  biennial,  makes  fine  pasture  the  first  season  and 
abundant  crop  of  pasture,  hay  or  seed  the  second  season.  There 
are  two  varieties — white  and  yellow — the  latter  being  generally 
preferred  for  hay,  as  it  does  not  grow  so  coarse;  it  grows  from 
two  to  four  feet  high,  while  the  white  will  double  this  growth 
under  same  conditions,  and  makes  splendid  hay  if  properly  man- 
aged; makes  more  and  later  pasture  and  builds  land  up  much 
quicker.  Each  is  good  for  all  kinds  of  stock;  does  not  bloat 
cattle  or  sheep;  is  one  of  the  best  honey  plants  known.  It  is  a 
leguminous  plant,  the  strongest  within  our  knowledge.  When 
once  established  it  requires  no  further  seeding  as  it  reseeds 
itself.  After  it  has  once  seeded,  the  land  may  be  cultivated  two 
or  three  years  and  a  good  stand  follow  without  reseeding. 

Sown  at  any  season  of  the  year,  you  are  sure  to  get  enough 
to  secure  a  catch  by  waiting  and  allowing  it  to  seed  and  spread, 
but  of  course  it  is  desirable  to  get  a  good  stand  at  once,  for  which 
I  advise  sowing  from  Dec.  1  to  March  1,  on  top  of  land  without 
covering.  Or  if  sown  later,  say  to  the  first  of  May,  it  should  be 
harrowed  or  brushed  in. 

It  can  be  sown  with  small  grain  of  any  kind  either  in  spring 
or  fall.  If  sown  in  early  fall  it  should  be  covered  sufficiently 
deep  to  prevent  germination  until  spring.  Good  results  are  had 
by  sowing  on  stony  washed  and  barren  hills  during  the  winter 
months  without  previous  preparation  of  the  land,  as  the  -  seed 
will  be  carried  down  by  the  frequent  freeze  and  thaw.  The  seed 
should  never  be  sown  on  snow  or  hard  frozen  ground,  as  it  is 
liable  to  be  carried  off  by  following  rains.  Good  blue  grass 
sod  can  be  had  in  three  to  four  years  on  this  class  of  land  by 
sowing  the  two  seeds  together;  all  grasses  do  much  better  grown 
with  sweet  clover. 

To  illustrate  the  rapidity  with  which  sweet  clover  is  gaining 
favor,  I  will  state  that  in  1903  I  saved  one  bushel  of  seed.  In 
1904  I  saved  four  bushels  of  seeds.  I  wrote  articles  which  were 
published  in  the  county  paper,  describing  its  habits  and  quali- 
ties. I  continued  to  recommend  it  locally;  and  in  1905  saved 


172  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

thirty  bushels  of  seed  which  were  readily  taken,  and  later  in  the 
season  the  demand  could  not  be  supplied  at  any  price.  As  a  re- 
sult hundreds  of  acres  of  land  in  this  and  in  one  or  two  neigh- 
boring counties,  so  worn  and  washed  that  it  was  almost  worth- 
less, has  been  and  is  being  brought  back  to  a  state  of  productive- 
ness and  value. 

In  regard  to  seed,  there  seems  to  be  no  established  market  as 
to  prices  or  number  of  pounds  per  bushel.  It  is  sold  at  all  kinds 
of  prices  per  bushel,  the  bushels  ranging  from  14  to  60  pounds 
per  bushel. 

There  is  also  a  vast  difference  in  the  quality  of  the  seed,  as 
to  how  it  is  cleaned  and  handled,  as  it  heats  very  readily  even  in 
small  bulk,  consequently  there  is  much  dead  seed  sold,  which  fact 
has  discouraged  many  would-be  growers. 

I  recommend  the  sowing  of  unhulled  seed  as  a  cheaper  seed 
as  something  else  is  often  substituted  for  the  hulled. 

It  should  be  cut  when  the  first  blooms  appear  and  handled 
much  the  same  as  other  clovers,  giving  a  little  more  sunshine, 
according  to  weight  of  crop.  For  hay  I  advise  sowing  the  yellow 
blossom  variety  on  hand  where  the  machine  can  be  run.  More 
feed  of  fine  quality  can  be  had  per  acre  from  this  plant  than  any 
grass  I  have  ever  seen.  For  improving  land  and  for  grazing  I 
strongly  advise  using  the  white  variety.  I  do  not  recommend 
sweet  clover  for  low  or  wet  land. 

We  have  recently  purchased  200  acres  more  of  the  same  class 
of  land" and  will  soon  have  this  in  the  same  present  condition  of 
the  first  100  acres  purchased.  During  the  spring  of  the  ex- 
tremely dry  season  of  1908  we  broke  for  corn  an  old  timothy 
meadow  where  patches  of  sweet  clover  had  been  started,  and  all 
during  the  season,  after  the  corn  had  started,  it  was  easy  to  see 
where  the  sweet  clover  had  grown,  and  these  spots  were  the  only 
part  of  the  field  where  we  had  any  corn  which  was  fairly  good, 
and  the  rest  of  the  field  yielded  only  fodder  of  poor  quality. 

Mr.  James  Thompson,  an  all-round  business  man  and  director 
of  the  Pendleton  Bank  at  Falmouth,  has  purchased  a  few. hun- 
dred acres  of  worn  out  land  which  he  has  seeded  to  sweet  '.clover 
and  is  well  pleased  with  the  investment  and  says  he  knows  of  no 
other  plant  so  valuable  to  those  having  worn  out  or  washed  land. 

Mr.  J.  S.  Gardner,  Kelat,  Ky.,  stock  buyer  and  shipper, 
says:  "The  fattest  sheep  and  cattle  I  handle  are  those  from 
sweet  clover  pastures." 

Milch  cows  fed  on  sweet  clover  hay  yield  an  abundance  of 
milk  from  which  is  made  nice  yellow  butter.  Stock  cattle,  young 
horses  and  mules  do  well  on  the  hay  without  grain. 


MANURES  AND   HUMUS  IN   SOIL.  173 

Land  is  just  as  easily  broken  after  a  heavy  crop  of  sweet 
clover  as  after  common  red,  if  plowed  before  the  seed  plants 
have  made  too  much  growth.  Seedling  plants  do  not  interfere 
with  wheat.  The  yearling  plant  is  a  little  in  the  way  of  harvest- 
ing, but  does  not  injure  the  crop,  unless  it  should  be  very  thick. 
It  will  grow  just  as  well  on  the  poorest  stony  washed  limestone 
land  as  on  the  best  of  soil.  The  land  cannot  be  too  dry  and  hot 
for  it  to  succeed.  It  does  prepare  land  for  alfalfa  by  loosening, 
enriching  and  furnishing  the  necessary  bacteria.  It  is  a  drouth 
resisting  plant,  and  continues  to  grow  through  the  dryest  sum- 
mers, furnishing  an  abundance  of  grazing,  while  other  grasses 
are  parched,  and  remains  green  until  quite  hard  freezing.  Sweet 
clover  is  all  right  on  good  land,  but  it  is  the  man  with  the  worn 
land  who  needs  it  most.  On  dry  land  such  a  thing  as  an  entire 
failure  is  out  of  the  question  if  good  seed  is  sown,  no  matter  at 
what  season  of  the  year,  but  of  course  you  may  expect  best  re- 
sults from  spring  seeding  where  the  seed  is  covered  by  any  means 
convenient,  or  from  early  winter  sowing,  when  nature  will  do 
the  covering.  When  sown  for  hay  I  use  one  bushel  of  seed  to 
four  acres,  for  grazing  or  improving  land  one  bushel  will  be  suf- 
ficient for  five  or  six  acres.  If  sown  late  in  the  season  and  the 
weather  is  dry  the  seed  will  lay  over  to  the  next  spring  and 
come  all  right.  Some  of  the  best  stands  I  have  ever  had  were 
obtained  from  such  conditions. 

Some  of  the  statements  made  may  seem  a  little  extravagant  to 
those  not  familiar  with  the  plant,  yet  there  is  not  a  particle  of 
exaggeration.  Just  imagine  a  growth  from  six  to  eight  feet  high 
and  so  thick  a  man  can  scarcely  walk  through  it,  being  left  on 
the  land  to  enrich  it  and  stop  wash  and  to  be  followed  without 
cost  the  next  season  with  a  growth  of  seed  plants  that  will  form 
a  dense  sod  and  grow  to  the  height  of  two  to  three  feet,  and  this 
process  repeated  year  after  year,  and  add  to  this  the  fact  that 
this  plant  unquestionably  attracts  to  the  soil  more  than  double 
the  amount  of  nitrogen  that  red  clover  will  under  the  most  favor- 
able conditions.  Can  you  then  wonder  that  land  is  so  rapidly  im- 
proved?" 

In  Wyoming. — The  Wyoming  experiment  station 
reports  that  lambs  fed  upon  sweet  clover  hay  relished 
it  and  throve.  It  was  found  that  they  digested  it  ex- 
ceedingly well,  and  that  it  contained  a  very  large 
percentage  of  digestible  protein.  It  is  well  known 


174 


ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 


that  animals  usually  refuse  to  eat  green  sweet  clover. 
It  seems  that  when  made  into  hay,  with  a  little  salt 
added,  they  relish  it. 
The  Wyoming  experiment  is  thus  reported: 

Sweet  clover  throughout  most  of  the  eastern  states  is  consid- 
ered as  a  weed  and  is  treated  as  such.  At  this  altitude,  under 
our  peculiar  conditions,  it  is  believed  by  a  few  that  there  is  a  fu- 
ture for  it,  since  it  grows  well.  It  is  an  alkali-resisting  plant 
and,  although  it  is  not  palatable  to  stock  in  the  green  condition, 
yet  after  it  is  cured,  especially  where  salt  has  been  added,  the 
stock  relish  it  and  thrive  well  upon  it.  It  is  very  nutritious, 
readily  digestible,  and  contains  an  exceedingly  high  percentage 
of  crude  protein.  It  is  more  nutritious  When  cut  at  the  proper 
period  than  many  of  the  other  hays. 

The  sweet  clover  hay  used  in  this  experiment  was  grown 
on  the  experiment  station  farm  near  Laramie  in  1905.  It  had 
been  in  stack  for  over  a  year  before  being  used  for  this  experi- 
ment. It  was  very  rank  at  the  time  of  cutting  and  the  amount 
of  stems,  therefore,  very  large  in  proportion  to  the  leaves.  The 
stems  had  become  rather  hard  and  woody.  Notwithstanding 
this,  the  hay  proved  to  be  a  very  narrow  ration,  since  the  nutri- 
tive ratio  was  only  1:3.2.  The  crude  fiber  did  not  run  as  high  as 
would  have  been  expected,  being  but  24.75  per  cent.  The  experi- 
ment was  begun  April  13th  and  completed  April  26th,  1907. 

Amount  fed 3,000  grams 

Amount  of  orts 00  grams 

Amount  of  feces  (air  dry) 1,118  grams 

ANALYSIS. 


Water. 

Ash. 

Ether 
extract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Crude 
protein. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Fepd    

7.81 

10.75 

1.58 

24.75 

15.74 

39.37 

Feces                                    

6  27 

9.41 

42.32 

10.44 

28.67 

AMOUNT  IN  GRAMS. 


Dry 
matter. 

Ash. 

Ether 
extract. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Crude 
protein. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Fed  and  consumed  
Feces 

2,765.7 
1,047.8 

322.5 
105.2 

47.4 
32.3 

742.5 
473.1 

472.2 
116.7 

1,181.1 
320.5 

Digested  • 

1,717.9 

217.3 

15.1 

269.4 

355.5 

860.6 

Per  cent  digested  

62.12 

67.38 

31.86 

36.28 

75.28 

72.86 

MANURES   AND   HUMUS   IN   SOIL. 


175 


DIGESTION  COEFFICIENTS  OF  SWEET  CLOVER  HAY. 


Dry 

matter. 

Ash. 

Ether 
extract 

Crude 
fiber. 

Crude 
protein. 

Nitrogen- 
free  extract. 

Sheep  1  
Sheep  2 

58.44 
62.08 

65.36 
64  62 

32.91 
28  06 

27.14 
37  48 

75.33 

75  77 

70.52 

72  74 

Sheep  3  

62.12 

67.38 

31.86 

36.28 

75  28 

72  86 

60  88 

65  79 

30  94 

33  63 

75  46 

79  04 

The  digestive  coefficients  of  sweet  clover  hay  are  entirely  sat- 
isfactory. It  seems  that  the  great  objection  to  the  hay  is  the 
flavor  and  the  fact  that  it  becomes  woody  if  it  is  allowed  to 
ripen.  It  is  believed  that  there  are  possibilities  for  this  plant  in 
Wyoming  if  it  is  cut  at  the  right  time  and  properly  cured  and 
cared  for.  It  grows  well  and  the  yields  are  large.  The  nutritive 
ratio  is  1:32.2,  as  found  by  this  experiment,  which  makes  sweet 
clover  a  narrower  ration  than  alfalfa. 


PHOSPHORUS  FOR  SOILS. 

Phosphorus  is  the  "life"  of  the  soil.  Scientists 
are  not  agreed  as  to  the  function  of  phosphorus 
in  the  soil,  some  contending  that  as  applied  it  is 
merely  a  sort  of  disinfectant,  as  it  were ;  that  it  de- 
stroys certain  toxic  or  poisonous  conditions  hurt- 
ful to  plant  life.  Certain  it  is,  however,  that  soils 
well  stored  with  available  phosphorus  are  produc- 
tive of  the  right  sorts  of  useful  plants.  Soils  well 
stored  with  phosphoTus  are  rich  soils,  grow  rich 
plants  and  make  splendid  animals.  The  soils  of  the 
central  blue-grass  region  of  Kentucky  are  so  rich 
in  phosphorus  that  the  addition  of  more  can  not 
usually  be  seen  in  the  crop.  They  are  rich  too  in 
carbonate  of  lime  and  from  these  soils  grow  the 
best  grasses  in  the  world,  and  the  horses  and  cat- 
tle feeding  on  these  grasses  are  famed  the  world 
around. 

Soils  that  are  p'oor  and  unproductive  are  usually 
much  helped  by  applications  of  additional  phos- 
phorus. Alfalfa  especially  responds  to  this  element. 

Basic  Slag. — Basic  slag  has  already  been  men- 
tioned. It  is  a  refuse  left  from  making  steel.  Cer- 
tain ores  rich  in  phosphorus  make  bad  steel  unless 
that  element  is  taken  out  of  them.  John  W.  Pater- 
son  of  West  Scotland  Agricultural  College,  Glas- 
gow, in  an  admirable  pamphlet  on  use  of  "Basic 
Slag  on  the  Farm,"  says: 

The   essential   constituents   of  manures   are   nitrogen,   potash 

(176) 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS.  177 

and  phosphoric  acid  for  the  sake  of  the  crop,  lime  for  the  sake 
of  the  land. 

At  the  outset  of  cultivation  size  of  crop  will  generally  be  de- 
termined by  the  supply  of  the  first  three.  After  a  term  of  years 
the  ability  of  the  soil  to  respond  to  fresh  applications  of  artifi- 
cial manures  will  largely  depend  on  its  holding  a  sufficiency  of 
lime. 

The  use  of  most  of  the  ordinary  artificial  manures  involves 
the  washing  out  of  lime  into  the  drains.  Thus  the  application  of 
1  cwt.  sulphate  of  ammonia  will,  in  ordinary  circumstances, 
cause  an  ultimate  loss  of  more  than  its  own  weight  of  available 
lime  compounds  in  the  drainage  of  waters.  After  a  long  period 
of  artificial  manuring  the  use  of  ground  lime  as  a  soil  corrective 
has  been  rapidly  gaining  prominence  in  recent  years. 

It  is  in  view  of  this  fact  that  among  all  artificial  manures 
basic  slag  possesses  a  special  interest.  While  primarily  em- 
ployed as  a  phosphate,  it  contains  ground  lime  as  an  accidental 
constituent.  Bones  do  not  cause  waste  of  available  lime  com- 
pounds from  the  soil.  Basic  slag  actually  increases  them.  All 
other  artificial  manures  in  common  use,  nitrogenous,  phosphatic 
and  potassic,  cause  a  gradual  washing  away  of  the  lime  com- 
pounds from  the  land. 

Manures  are  applied  not  because  the  land  is  ever  actually 
deficient  in  nitrogen,  potash  or  phosphoric  acid  at  the  time.  They 
are  applied  rather  because  the  natural  supplies  of  these  are  in  a 
form  unsuitable  for  absorption  by  plants. 

The  importance  of  lime  in  land  is  that  it  hastens  the  conver- 
sion of  the  natural  soil  constituents  into  available  forms.  This 
effect  is  exercised  on  the  phosphates,  on  the  potash,  but  above  all 
on  the  nitrogen.  The  general  effect  of  liming  on  newly  broken  in 
land,  especially  on  peats,  which  are  commonly  deficient  in  lime, 
is  sufficient  evidence  of  this. 

Leguminous  crops,  including  clovers,  vetches  and  beans,  do 
not  require  nitrogenous  manures  because  they  are  able  to  utilize 
atmospheric  nitrogen.  Lime  greatly  strengthens  their  power  to 
do  this,  thereby  giving  larger  crops  and  enriching  the  land  in 
nitrogen  at  the  same  time.  Basic  slag  has  the  same  power  part- 
ly owing  to  the  extra  lime  which  it  contains,  the  effect  being 
usually  best  seen  in  the  stimulation  of  clovers  in  pasture  leys. 

Basic  slag  is  a  by-product  in  the  manufacture  of  steel  by  the 
basic  process.  Pig  iron  frequently  contains  phosphorus;  and  steel 
made  from  this  is  brittle  unless  the  phosphorus  is  removed.  In 
the  process  of  manufacture  a  blast  of  air  is  forced  through  the 
molten  pig  iron,  whereby  the  phosphorus  in  the  pig  is  burned  to 


178  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

give  phosphoric  acid.  This  acid  then  unites  with  lime  thrown 
into  the  molten  metal  for  the  purpose.  A  phosphate  of  lime  is 
formed.  This  rises  to  the  surface  of  the  metal  as  a  fusible  slag, 
and  is  subsequently  poured  off  and  cooled.  A  dark,  brittle,  hard 
mass  is  obtained,  which  is  capable  of  extremely  fine  grinding  in 
roller  mills. 

In  1886,  Dr.  Hilgenstock  showed  that  basic  slag  phosphate  ex- 
ists as  a  hitherto  unknown  compound  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
lime,  viz.,  a  tetra-basic  phosphate  (CaO)4P2O5.  Later  investiga- 
tions showed  that  this  phosphate,  if  only  sufficiently  ground, 
passes  easily  into  solution  even  in  very  dilute  acids.  In  a  sample 
shaken  up  with  peat  and  water,  78.8  per  cent  of  its  phosphate 
was  dissolved  in  14  days.  The  suitability  of  basic  slag  phos- 
phate for  direct  absorption  by  plants  was  thereby  demonstrated. 

The  special  characteristics  of  basic  slag  as  a  manure  are  (1) 
the  easy  solubility  of  its  phosphate  in  dilute  acid,  (2)  the  pres- 
ence of  free  lime  giving  what  is  chemically  called  an  alkaline  re- 
action. In  both  these  respects  basic  slag  is  superior  to  bones. 
Super-phosphate,  the  other  principal  source  of  phosphoric  acid,  is 
superior  in  solubility,  being  water  soluble,  but  inferior  in  its 
general  effect  upon  soils,  being  deficient  in  lime.  These  differ- 
ences in  character  of  the  three  manures  are  seen  in  their  relative 
effects  as  crop-producers  in  carefully  conducted  experiments. 

The  capacity  of  leguminous  crops  to  utilize  atmospheric  nitro- 
gen renders  nitrogenous  manures  generally  unnecessary.  For 
the  same  reason  farm  yard  manure,  which  supplies  much  nitro- 
gen, can  in  most  cases  be  better  utilized  upon  some  other  crop. 
The  most  profitable  return  will  in  ordinary  practice  be  obtained 
from  a  dressing  of  artificials  supplying  phosphates,  potash  and 
lime. 

Beans,  vetches  and  peas  are  all  lime-loving  crops,  and  for  this 
reason  basic  slag  is  well  suited  to  their  requirements.  Belonging 
to  the  same  natural  order  are  sainfoin,  lucerne  and  clover,  im- 
portant forage  crops.  For  these,  5  cwt.  basic  slag,  and  2l/2  cwt. 
kainit  in  autumn,  is  recommended  as  a  suitable  application,  with 
3  or  4  cwt.  superphosphate,  and  the  same  quantity  of  kainit  again 
in  spring.  The  quantities  stated  may  require  to  be  increased  or 
diminished  according  to  the  fertility  of  the  land. 

While  the  necessity  of  applying  manures  to  land  under  crop 
is  now  almost  generally  recognized,  the  claims  of  pasture 
strangely  enough  are  almost  wholly  neglected.  Recent  investiga- 
tions have  shown,  however,  that  this  is  a  mistake.  More  es- 
pecially is  this  the  case  with  the  medium  and  second-class 
pastures,  whicn  form  such  a  large  proportion  of  our  grazing  area. 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS. 


179 


Practically  speaking,  all  such  pastures  will  yield  a  profitable 
return  to  a  suitable  application  of  manures,  and  in  some  cases 
the  natural  yield  may  be  even  trebled. 

Attention  was  first  directed  to  the  improvement  of  pasture 
land  by  Dr.  Somerville,  while  director  of  the  Northumberland 
County  Farm  at  Cockle  Park.  His  experiments  were  started  in 
1897,  an'd  the  results  to  date  are  published  in  a  report  by  his  suc- 
cessor, Prof.  Gilchrist.  The  plots  receiving  different  manurial 
treatment  are  each  3  1-20  acres — three  acres  being  grazed  each 
summer,  while  the  odd  fraction  is  cut  for  hay.  The  live-increases 
of  the  sheep  and  the  yields  of  hay  are  carefully  noted  during 
each  year,  and  compared  with  the  unmanured  plot.  Ten  differ- 
ent systems  of  manuring  were  contrasted  in  the  experiments,  but 
the  following  four  only  need  be  referred  to,  as  they  were  most 
profitable  of  the  various  methods: 


PLOT. 

MANURES. 

Cost  of 
manures. 

Mutton 
produced 
(6  years). 

Profit 
from 
manures 

II;-y 
per  acre 
(6  years) 

6 

Unmanured   .                    ... 

246  Ibs. 

59  cwt. 

3 

10  cwt  slaf  1897 

22  s 

822  Ibs 

158  s 

164  cwt 

4 

5  cwt  sla°-  *  1897  same  1'JUO... 

22  s. 

602  Ibs. 

108  s. 

133  cwt 

5 

8 

7  cwt.  super,*  1897.  same  1900  
Same  as  plot  5;  ^  ton  ground  lime. 
1897,  same  1899  

36s. 

56s. 

642  Ibs. 
769  Ibs. 

88s. 
107s. 

124  cwt. 
138  cwt. 

"Containing  100  Ibs.  phosphoric  acid. 

The  profit  is  estimated  from  the  extra  mutton  produced  over 
and  above  that  on  the  unmanured  plot.  It  is  valued  for  the 
purpose  at  3%d.  per  pound,  live  weight. 

Basic  slag  here  has  proved  at  o^ce  the  cheapest  and  most 
profitable  form  of  fertilizer  on  pasture.  Its  superiority  to  super- 
phosphate (Plots  4  and  5)  seem  to  be  due  to  the  fact  that  besides 
containing  easily  available  phosphate  it  also  contains  free  lime. 
Comparison  of  plots  5  and  8  bears  this  inference.  The  land  at 
Cockle  Park  is  stiff  clay,  and  has  been  under  pasture  for  over 
thirty  years. 

Basic  slag  is  purchased  on  its  percentage  of  phosphate  of 
lime.  The  quality  varies  from  about  20  to  45  per  cent  phosphate 
,  (equal  to  9  to  21  per  cent  phosphoric  acid).  The  higher  grades 
are  usually  rather  cheaper  per  unit.  The  unit  prices  of  different 
samples  may  be  ascertained  by  dividing  the  prices  per  ton  by  the 
percentages.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  quality  which  sup- 
plies the  unit  of  phosphate  at  the  lowest  cost  on  the  farm  should 
be  purchased. 

I  devote  this  amount  of  space  to  basic  slag  be- 


180  ALFALFA    FARMING  .IN    AMERICA. 

cause  I  have  seen  such  good  effects  come  from  its 
use  in  England,  and  because  it  did  equally  well  on 
Woodland  Farm.  It  will  never  perhaps  be  cheap 
enough  for  use  west  of  the  Allegheny  Mountains, 
since  it  is  all  imported  from  England  or  Germany, 
but  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  it  is  now  probably 
as  cheap  a  source  of  phosphoric  acid  as  anything 
known.  With  basic  slag  one  gets  quite  a  little  lime 
free  of  cost,  since  usually  there  is  about  55%  of 
carbonate  of  lime  in  basic  slag.  It  should  sell  for 
about  $1  per  unit;  that  is,  a  slag  analyzing  18% 
phosphoric  acid  should  sell  for  $18  per  ton,  when  it  is 
about  as  cheap  as  any  other  source  of  phosphorus 
with  the  lime  thrown  in. 

In  England  on  old  pastures  basic  slag  works 
miracles.  There  with  the  sowing  of  no  seeds  at  all 
clovers  spring  up  and  cover  over  the  land,  almost 
crowding  out  the  grasses.  The  lime  has  sweetened 
the  soil,  the  phosphorus  fed  it,  the  clovers  result. 
Later  the  decay  of  clover  leaves  and  stems  fill  the 
soil  with  available  nitrogen  which  in  turn  feeds  the 
grass.  When  will  we  learn  in  America  to  feed  soils'? 

Oilier  Sources  of  Phosphorus. — Prof.  Alfred 
Vivian,  of  the  Ohio  State  University,  so  clearly  and 
concisely  states  the  composition  of  phosphatic  fer- 
tilizers in  his  admirable  little  book,  "First  Prin- 
ciples of  Soil  Fertility, ' '  that  we  here  quote : 

Phosphoric  acid  is  present  in  the  soil  in  much  smaller  quan- 
tities than  potash,  and  experience  shows  that  it  'is  much  more 
likely  to  become  exhausted.  In  fact,  there  are  sections  of  the 
country  where  no  other  fertilizers  than  those  furnishing  phos- 
phoric acid  are  used,  while  these  are  bought  in  large  quantities. 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS.  181 

All  this  class  of  fertilizers  contains  its  phosphoric  acid  in  the 
form  of  phosphates,  i.  e.,  the  phosphoric  acid  is  combined  with 
some  basic  substance,  which  is  generally  lime.  The  phosphates 
may  be  subdivided  into  two  general  classes — the  natural  and  the 
manufactured  phosphates. 

Natural  Phosphates. — There  are  two  general  sources  of  phos- 
phates— the  bones  of  dead  animals,  and  certain  phosphate-contain- 
ing minerals,  which  will  be  briefly  considered. 

Raw  bone  meal  is  made  by  grinding  raw  bones  to  a  powder, 
and  the  finer  it  is  the  more  valuable  the  product.  This  substance 
contains  about  22  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and  4  per  cent  of 
nitrogen.  Raw  bones  contain  a  small  quantity  of  fat  as  well  and, 
as  this  prevents  rapid  decay  of  the  bone,  the  phosphoric  acid  and 
nitrogen  in  the  meal  are  somewhat  slowly  available  to  the  crop. 

Steamed  Bone  meal. — Most  of  the  bone  meal  sold  at  the  pres- 
ent time  is  made  from  bones  previously  steamed  to  remove  the 
fat  and  a  part  of  the  nitrogen  compounds.  The  fat  is  used  in 
making  soap  and  the  nitrogen  in  glue  and  gelatins.  Steamed 
bone  contains  from  28  to  30  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  and 
about  IV2  per  cent  of  nitrogen.  The  steamed  bones  can  be  ground 
to  a  much  finer  powder,  and  the  removal  of  the  fat  causes  them 
to  decay  more  rapidly,  so  that  they  must  be  considered  a  more 
valuable  source  of  phosphoric  acid  than  the  raw  bones. 

Mineral  Phosphates. — In  a  number  of  places  rock  deposits  are 
found  that  contain  varying  percentages  of  phosphate  of  lime. 
These  phosphates  are  usually  named  after  the  place  where  they 
are  obtained,  as,  Carolina  phosphates,  Florida  phosphates  and 
Tennessee  phosphates.  These  rocks  contain  from  18  to  32  per 
cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  differ  from  the  bone  products  in 
that  they  are  purely  mineral  substances  and  contain  no  organic 
matter.  Ground  into  a  fine  powder,  they  are  sometimes  sold  un- 
der the  name  of  floats,  but  the  rock  phosphates  are  used  only  to 
a  limited  extent  in  the  crude  condition. 

Superphosphates  or  Manufactured  Phosphates. — The  phos- 
phoric acid  in  all  of  the  natural  phosphates  described  is  combined 
with  lime  in  a  form  that  is  extremely  insoluble  in  water.  In  or- 
der to  make  the  phosphate  soluble  it  is  sometimes  treated  with 
sulphuric  acid,  which  unites  with  part  of  the  lime,  leaving  a 
phosphate  which  contains  only  one-third  as  much  lime  as  the 
natural  phosphate,  and  which  is  soluble  in  water.  The  lime  and 
sulphuric  acid  make  a  compound  which  is  the  same  as  that  found 
in  gypsum  or  land-plaster.  This  combination  of  soluble  phos- 
phate and  gypsum,  made  by  treating  the  natural  phosphates  with 
acid,  is  called  by  the  various  names  of  super-phosphate,  soluble 


182  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

phosphate,  acid  phosphate  or  acidulated  rock.  For  its  manufac- 
ture the  rock  phosphates  are  generally  employed,  both  because 
they  are  cheaper  and  because  the  organic  matter  in  the  bones 
interferes  with  the  use  of  sufficient  acid  to  make  all  the  phos- 
phate soluble.  A  good  sample  of  super-phosphate  or  acidulated 
rock  contains  about  16  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid  in  a  form  that 
is  soluble  in  water.  Sometimes  when  insufficient  acid  has  been 
used  a  part  of  the  soluble  phosphate  will  change  into  a  form  in- 
termediate in  solubility  between  the  natural  phosphate  and  the 
acid  phosphate,  and  the  acid  phosphate  is  said  to  have  undergone 
reversion,  and  the  new  compound  is  called  reverted  phosphate. 
The  latter  product  is  supposed  to  be  more  available  to  the  plant 
than  the  insoluble  or  natural  phosphate,  hence  the  soluble  and 
reverted  phosphoric  acid  taken  together  are  known  as  the  avail- 
able phosphoric  acid. 

In  some  instances  bone  meal  is  treated  with  a  limited  amount 
of  sulphuric  acid  and  the  product  is  called  acidulated  bone. 
This  substance  contains  a  much  smaller  proportion  of  its  phos- 
phoric acid  in  the  soluble  form  than  does  the  rock  superphos- 
phate. When  soluble  phosphates  are  added  to  the  soil  they  soon 
combine  with  the  mineral  matter,  and  are  converted  first  into 
the  reverted  phosphate,  and  finally  into  the  insoluble  form  such 
as  is  found  naturally  in  the  soil.  In  this  way  the  phosphoric 
acid  is  fixed  and  there  is  no  danger  of  its  being  lost  by  leaching. 

Relative  Value  of  Phosphate  Fertilizers. — The  soluble  phos- 
phate present  in  the  acidulated  goods  is  generally  considered  the 
most  valuable  form  of  phosphoric  acid  for  use  as  a  fertilizer.  At 
first  sight  it  seems  useless  to  go  to  the  expense  of  making  the 
phosphate  soluble  when  it  is  again  rendered  insoluble  by  the 
soil  before  the  plant  can  make  use  of  it.  The  real  object  in  mak- 
ing it  soluble  is  to  aid  in  its  distribution  in  the  soil.  When  an 
insoluble  phosphate  is  applied  it  remains  where  it  falls  except 
for  the  slight  distribution  it  receives  by  cultivation.  In  the  case 
of  the  soluble  phosphate,  on  the  other  hand,  the  phosphate  dis- 
solves in  the  soil  water  and  is  widely  distributed  before  it  be- 
comes fixed  by  the  soil.  In  the  former  case  the  roots  must  go 
to  the  phosphate  while  in  the  latter  the  phosphate  is  carried  to 
the  roots.  It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  that  after  the 
soluble  phosphate  is  distributed  throughout  the  soil  the  indi- 
vidual particles  must  be  very  much  smaller  than  is  the  case  with 
the  insoluble  phosphate. 

There  are  some  soils  upon  which  the  superphosphates  cannot 
be  used  without  injury,  usually  those  that  are  deficient  in  lime, 
the  superphosphate  in  such  cases  having  a  tendency  to  make 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS.  183 

them  acid.  Indeed  it  is  even  asserted  that  soils  containing  an 
abundance  of  lime  in  the  beginning  may  be  made  acid  by  the 
continued  use  of  superphosphate  if  no  lime  is  added. 

When  the  natural  phosphates  alone  are  considered  there  is  no 
doubt  that  the  preference  should  be  given  to  those  derived  from 
bones.  The  organic  matter  present  in  the  bones  decays  when  it  is 
incorporated  with  the  soil,  and  this  process  doubtless  causes  the 
phosphate  to  become  more  readily  available  to  the  plant,  while 
the  rock  phosphate  on  the  contrary  is  very  slowly  decomposed. 
The  degree  of  fineness  to  which  bone  meal  or  mineral  phosphate 
is  ground  is  of  prime  importance.  Very  fine  bone  meal  is  much 
more  available  than  that  which  is  coarser  and  is  always  rated  at 
a  higher  price  a  ton. 

Using  Floats  with  Manure. — The  use  of  floats,  or  finely  ground 
phosphate  rock,  has  not  met  with  general  favor,  and  it  probably 
does  not  give  good  results  when  used  alone.  Some  of  the  earlier 
experiments  indicate  that  it  has  practically  no  value  as  a  source 
of  phosphoric  acid  for  the  plant.  Recent  investigations  at  the 
Ohio  and  Illinois  Experiment  Stations  show  that  when  floats  are 
added  to  farm  manure  it  has  a  very  high  fertilizing  value;  in 
fact  the  increased  crop  production  in  Ohio  due  to  adding  the 
ground  rock  phosphate  to  the  stall  manure  was  nearly  as  large 
as  that  obtained  from  the  addition  of  superphosphate.  The  acid 
substances  produced  during  the  decay  of  the  manure  apparently 
make  the  phosphoric  acid  in  the  rock  more  available,  and  it 
would  seem  from  these  experiments  that  the  comparatively  in- 
expensive floats  might,  partially  at  least,  replace  superphosphate 
if  used  in  connection  with  the  manure.  Other  experiments  have 
demonstrated  that  good  results  can  be  obtained  from  the  use  of 
ground  rock  phosphate  when  plowed  under  with  a  green  manure 
crop  like  clover,  but  that  it  is  of  very  little  value  if  used  on  a 
soil  low  in  organic  matter.  In  a  plot  experiment  at  the  Mass- 
achusetts experiment  station  two  "equal  money's  worth"  of 
ground  Carolina  rock  and  superphosphates  were  compared.  In 
this  case  the  superphosphate  proved  superior  at  first,  but  within 
a  few  years  the  plot  to  which  rock  phosphate  was  added  gave 
higher  yields.  It  would  seem,  on  the  whole,  that  the  use  of 
floats  with  manure  is  worthy  of  a  trial  by  anyone  needing  a 
phosphate  fertilizer.  Ohio  Bulletin  134  recommends  that  the 
ground  rock  be  used  "as  an  absorbent  in  the  stable,  thus  secur- 
ing an  intimate  mixture  with  the  manure  in  its  fresh  condition." 

Raw  Plwspliatic  Rock  for  Alfalfa. — Raw  rock, 
or  floats,  the  natural  Tennessee,  South  Carolina 


184  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

or  Florida  phospliatic  rock,  is  the  basis  of  the  fer- 
tilizer called  acid  phosphate,  or  acidulated  bone.  It 
is  made  into  acidulated  form  by  the  addition  of 
about  as  much  sulphuric  acid  as  is  taken  of  finely 
ground  rock. 

The  raw  rock  contains  a  large  amount  of  phos- 
phorus, but  it  is  not  in  an  available  condition  to 
be  taken  up  by  plants ;  at  least  this  is  the  general 
supposition.  Experiment,  however,  shows  that  when 
the  finely  ground  pliO'Sphatic  rock  is  put  in  contact 
with  decaying  organic  matter  in  the  soil  it  does  be- 
come available  and  plants  feed  upon  it.  A  given 
amount  of  money  will -purchase  about  two  or  three 
times  as  much  phosphorus  in  the  form  of  raw  rock 
as  it  will  purchase  in  the  acidulated  form. 

J.  F.  Jack  on.  his  farm  in  eastern  Virginia  has 
given  the  raw  rock  a  careful  test  and  with  very 
marked  results.  The  rock  was  applied  at  varying 
rates,  from  250  pounds  per  acre  to  1,000  pounds  per 
acre.  Check  strips  where  no  fertilizer  was  applied 
were  left.  The  result  showed  conclusively  that  the 
raw  phosphate  was  available  and  where  1,000 
pounds  per  acre  was  applied  the  result  was  a  splen- 
did growth  of  alfalfa.  Even  the  application  of  400 
pounds  gave  good  results,  though  it  is  not  probable 
that  it  would  be  nearly  so  permanent.  Fully  as  good 
results  were  obtained  with  the  raw  rock  on  this  par- 
ticular soil  where  a  heavy  growth  of  crimson  clover 
had  been  turned  down  and  about  1,000  pounds  per 
acre  of  water-slaked  lime  was  used,  as  was  had  from 
raw  bone,  400  pounds,  or  acid  phosphate,  400  pounds. 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS.  185 

It  is  not  yet  safe  to  say  that  upon  all  soils  the 
result  would  be  the  same,  but  on  this  particular  soil, 
somewhat  acid,  with  a  heavy  growth  of  green  clover 
turned  under,  there  is  no  mistaking  the  great  saving 
resulting  from  the  use  of  the  raw  rock. 

Upon  this  same  soil  potash  seemed  to  give  no 
noticeable  result,  nor  could  be  found  a  strip  where 
was  applied  nitrate  of  soda  at  the.  rate  of  100 
pounds  per  acre.  It  was  indistinguishable,  showing 
that  the  decaying  crimson  clover  furnished  all  the 
available  nitrogen  needed  for  the  growth  of  the 
little  alfalfa  plants. 

There  was  left  one  plot  with  no  inoculation.  The 
result  was  most  astonishing.  Where  the  land  was 
inoculated -with  soil  evenly  spread  the  alfalfa  stood 
thick  and  strong,  knee  high  and  more.  'Where  no 
inoculation  had  been  applied  it  was  thin,  weak, 
crowded  with  weeds,  many  plants  less  than  2"  high. 

Phosphates  on  Alfalfa. — Even  on  good  land  I  have 
found  it  very  profitable  to  sow  some  sort  of  phos- 
phate with  new  sown  alfalfa.  The  phosphorus  cer- 
tainly greatly  stimulates  the  little  alfalfa  plants  and 
makes  them  hustle  to  get  ahead  of  the  weeds  and 
grass.  Thus  stronger  stands  result.  Also  less  seed 
may  be  sown  to  the  acre  than  if  no  phosphorus  is 
used.  The  writer  and  his  brother  have  used  on 
Woodland  Farm  raw  bone  meal,  acid  phosphate  and 
basic  slag  with  about  equal  reults  so  far  as  the  eye 
could  see.  It  is  our  practice  to  put  on  250  to  400 
pounds  per  acre  of  16%  acid  phosphate  when  the 
alfalfa  is  sown  in  soils  well  filled  with  lime.  Acid 


186  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

phosphate  is  about  the  most  soluble  of  the  phos- 
p'hatic  fertilizers  and  thus  is  best  for  top  dressing 
when  there  is  abundant  lime  in  the  soil.  When  there 
is  suspicion  that  there  may  not  be  lime  enough  then 
basic  slag  or  bone  meal  should  be  used,  unless  lime 
also  is  applied.  Acid  phosphate  dissolves  away  a 
part  of  the  lime  in  the  soil.  That  is  its  one  bad 
feature. 

As  has  been  stated  the  alfalfa  meadows  on  Wood- 
land Farm  get  an  annual  dressing  of  phosphorus 
young  and  old  alike,  and  this  practice  pays  well. 

Fertilizer  Distributer. — On  Woodland  Farm  we 
own  a  wide  and  large  fertilizer  distributer.  This 
machine  sows  a  strip  8'  wide  and  the  box  holds  1,000 
pounds  of  fertilizer.'  It  simply  sows  the  stuff  broad- 
cast on  the  surface.  There  are  various  types  of 
these  machines.  The  American  Seeding  Machine 
Co.,  Springfield,  Ohio,  makes  one,  and  another  is 
made  by  the  Peoria  Drill  and  Seeder  Co>.,  Peoria, 
111.  With  such  a  machine  a  man  can  go  rapidly 
over  his  old  meadow,  or  ~sow  his  phosphorus  over 
his  land  preparatory  to  seeding  his  alfalfa.  Time 
is  the  thing  hardest  to  command  on  most  farms  in 
the  spring;  many  would  fertilize  their  meadows  if 
they  were  not  otherwise  too  busy.  With  these  large 
wide  sowing  machines  a  man  can  rapidly  get  over 
his  fields.  No  one  should  hesitate  to  buy  the  fer- 
tilizer, since  a  dollar  so  invested  will  usually  re- 
turn three  or  four  in  the  crop  of  hay. 

Adding  to  Fertility. — There  is  here  a  striking 
thought.  Since  our  farms  east  of  the  Missouri 


PHOSPHORUS    FOR    SOILS.  187 

Eiver  are  nearly  all  of  them  deficient  in  phosphorus, 
if  we  buy  it  and  use  it  on  alfalfa  meadows,  then 
feed  the  alfalfa  hay  and  put  back  the  manure,  we 
are  steadily  adding  to  our  capital  of  fertility;  not 
much  is  lost,  only  we  sell  away  in  the  bones  of  our 
cattle,  pigs  and  sheep  a  part  of  it  and  in  their  flesh 
and  blood  a  little  more.  An  alfalfa  farm  may  thus 
become  a  great  laboratory  of  fertility  gathering, 
provided  the  crops  are  fed  on  the  farm.  When  they 
are  sold  off  the  story  is  different. 

Row  Much  Phosphorus? — In  England  it  is  the 
custom  to  apply  very  large  amounts  of  basic  slag  to 
their  meadows  and  pastures  far  in  excess  of  what 
the  plants  can  take  up,  and  they  seem  to  get  large 
profit  from  so  doing.  There  is  lack  of  careful  ex- 
periment to  show  us  what  amounts  of  phosphorus 
will  pay  best  sown  with  or  on  alfalfa.  The  require- 
ments of  the  plant,  that  is,  the  amounts  actually 
taken  away  from  the  soil,  are  as  follows :  1,000  Ibs. 
of  alfalfa  hay  contains  5  Ibs.  of  phosphoric  acid;  4 
tons,  or  8,000  Ibs.,  would  then  contain  40  Ibs.  of 
phosphoric  acid.  Two  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of 
16%  acid  phosphate  would  contain  that  amount, 
and  should  make  good  what  was  removed  from  the 
soil  by  the  4  tons  of  hay.  That  there  should  be  abund- 
ance in  supply  the  writer  advises  the  use  of  300 
Ibs.  annually  of  16%  acid  phosphate,  or  propor- 
tional amounts  of  the  stuff,  if  a  different  percent- 
age is  bought.  Thus  if  only  10%  of  available  phos- 
phoric acid  is  present  one  would  need  to  use  400 
Ibs.  or  more.  So  it  is  cheaper  and  better  to  use  only 


188  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

the  high  grade  fertilizers  containing  large  percent- 
ages of  available  phosphoric  acid. 

How  Well  Will  This  Pay?— In  most  of  the  east- 
ern United  States  a  16%  acid  phosphate  can  be 
bought  for  $14  to  $16  per  ton.  Thus  250  Ibs.  would 
cost  about  $2,  and  the  labor  of  applying  it  about 
30c.  Thus  to  fertilize  an  acre  costs  less  than  $2.50. 
The  yield  of  hay  will  be  increased  in  proportion  to 
the  need  of  phosphorus,  but  on  Woodland  Farm  it 
has  been  as  much  as  2  tons  of  hay  per  acre  increase, 
and  thus  this  additional  hay  cost  us  only  $1.25  per 
ton.  Could  we  have  afforded  to  have  left  this  land 
unfertilized ! 

The  plain  fact  is  that  farming  is,  after  all,  a 
manufacturing  proposition.  The  land  is  the  fac- 
tory. Its  fertility  is  the  raw  material.  A  man 
would  be  thought  inconceivably  foolish  who  would 
through  stinginess  refuse  to  keep  his  factory  sup- 
plied with  raw  materials,  thus  letting  his  machinery 
work  to  only  half  of  its  capacity.  The  alfalfa 
meadow,  the  corn  field,  these  plants  are  our  ma- 
chines. Feed  them  with  their  required  raw  ma- 
terial. 


POTASH  AS  A  FERTILIZER. 

Most-  soils  derived  from  granitic  rocks  have  in 
them  a  lot  of  potash.  Most  soils  in  the  glaciated 
area  of  eastern  and  central  America  seems  to  b3 
quite  well  supplied  with  potash.  Some  sandy  soils 
are  deficient,  and  peaty  lands,  where  once  old  pond 
bottoms  were,  are  especially  deficient.  To  grow  al- 
falfa on  peat  or  to  grow  corn  there  one  must  use 
potash. 

Testing  ivitli  Potash. — As  a  rule  on  ordinary  up- 
land clays  and  clay  loams  potash  seems  not  to  be 
lacking.  Very  often  where  it  is  applied  to  such 
soils  no  result  can  be  seen.  It  is  wise  for  each  farm- 
er to  make  test  of  this  matter  for  himself.  Let  him 
procure  a  few  hundred  pounds  of  muriate  of  potash 
and  apply  it  in  strips  over  his  fields,  marking  the 
ends  of  the  strips  so  that  he  can  see  the  result,  if 
there  is  any.  About  200  Ibs.  per  acre  of  muriate  of 
potash  is  a  moderately  heavy  application. 

Wood  Ashes. — "Wood  ashes  may  contain  8%  of 
potash  and  2%  of  phosphoris  acid.  There  is  also 
some  lime  in  them  and  other  minerals  in  small 
amounts.  AVood  ashes  have  an  especially  good  ac- 
tion on  alfalfa.  It  is  an  interesting  truth  that  no  one 
has  yet  been  able  to  compound  a  fertilizer  that  would 
have  the  same  effect  as  wood  ashes,  though  the  ingre- 
dients were  so  mingled  that  chemically  the  two  mate- 
rials were  nearly  identical.  Nature  has  done  some- 

(189) 


190  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

thing  with  wood  ashes  that  man  can  not  imitate  very 
well.  The  writer  has  secured  splendid  results  from 
use  of  wood  ashes  on  soils  that  did  not  seem  to  need 
potas'h.  I  advise  that  all  wood  ashes  be  saved  with 
care  and  whenever  there  is  a  saw  mill  or  any  other 
wood-burning  furnace  nearby  the  ashes  should  be 
secured  and  applied  to  alfalfa  land.  Wood  ashes 
are  applied  in  varying  amounts,  from  500  Ibs.  to  one 
ton  per  acre. 


PLOWING  THE  SOIL. 

Plowing  is  an  ancient  art.  The  height  of  a  land's 
civilization  is  very  nearly  to  be  measured  by  the 
sort  of  plowing  done  there.  What  is  plowing  for! 
It  turns  under  loose  stubble,  trash  and  vegetation, 
putting  it  down  into  the  soil  where  it  may  decay  and 
by  its  decay  help  set  free  mineral  plant  food.  It 
loosens  the  earth  to  let  air  in  and  this  promotes  im- 
portant changes  in  the  soil.  It  lets  the  water  sink 
down  into  the  soil,  hence  plowed  lands  are  moister 
and  will  withstand  drouth  much  longer  than  un- 
plowed  lands. 

There  are  certain  crops  that  seems  to  thrive  on 
shallow  plowed  soils.  Alfalfa,  on  the  other  hand, 
seems  to  thrive  best  where  the  land  is  plowed  deep. 
In  older  lands  than  ours,  where  agriculture  has 
advanced  very  far  towards  a  perfect  system,  deep 
plowing  is  much  practiced.  In  France  some  plow 
a  foot  deep  and  even  deeper.  On  the  Island  of 
Guernsey  men  often  plow  a  field  twice,  the  first 
plowing  shallow,  the  second  one  crossways  and  go- 
ing down  as  far  as  16".  On  such  lands  alfalfa 
thrives  especially  well.  In  France  and  Algeria  men 
plow  for  alfalfa  full  20"  deep. 

Why  Deep  Plowing  Suits  Alfalfa.— The  reason 
why  alfalfa  likes  the  land  plowed  deep  is  doubtless 
because  the  letting  in  of  air  and  moisture  favors 
the  life  of  alfalfa-promoting  bacteria.  These 

(191) 


192  ALFALFA    FARMING  IN    AMERICA. 

thrive  especially  well  in  soils  where  the  air  can 
penetrate  easily.  The  bacteria  supply  alfalfa  with 
nitrogen.  Thus  deep  plowing  is  equivalent  to  feed- 
ing the  alfalfa  with  extra  nitrogen.  The  heaviest 
growth  of  alfalfa  that  I  have  ever  seen  was  on  the 
ranch  in  Utah  where  I  once  lived,  £he  plants  stand- 
ing 48"  high  all  over  the  field  and  very  thick.  The 
underlying  soil  there  was  of  loam,  interspersed  with 
layers  of  loose  sand  and  gravel,  a  soil  that  was  too 
easily  drained,  not  very  fertile,  but  well  filled  with 
lime  and  o<ther  alkalies.  With  copious  irrigation 
that  land  produced  enormous  crops  of  hay. 

Deep  plowing  in  a  manner  imitates  such  a  condi- 
tion by  letting  in  the  air  and  storing  up  more  mois- 
ture as  well.  Of  course  one  must  use  judgment.  If 
his  soil  is  of  poor  clay  with  only  a  thin  skin  of 
vegetable  mould  on  top  one  dares  not  bury  that 
deep  under  the  clay  and  plant  maize  thereon,  but 
it  is  probable  that  he  could  do  it  and  plant  alfalfa 
with  success,  especially  if  the  land  was  well  drained 
and  limed. 

The  water-holding  power  of  deeply  plowed  soil 
is  about  double  that  of  unplowed,  or  shallow  plowed 
soil.  This  is  important  when  it  comes  to  getting 
maximum  crops  of  .alfalfa  hay.  The  lack  of  mois- 
ture is  usually  the  limiting  factor  in  crop  yield,  a 
fact  not  half  appreciated  as  yet. 

How  to  Plow  Deep. — I  have  done  some  experi- 
menting on  a  hard  clay  soil  with  numerous  small 
round  boulders  or  "  niggerheads ' '  in  it  in  trying  to 
plow  deep.  It  is  not  an  easy  task.  In  this  especial 


PLOWING   THE   SOIL.  193 

soil  on  Woodland  Farm  the  top  soil  is  rather  poor 
in  lime,  leached  away  by  the  erosion  of  centuries 
of  rain.  Down  about  16"  are  many  limestone  peb- 
bles. Could  these  be  thrown  up  by  the  plow  the 
result  would  be  the  same  as  a  heavy  liming — be 
better,  in  truth.  How  do  we  know  this!  By  the  be- 
havior of  land  that  has  been  tile  drained.  Where 
the  ditches  are  dug  the  subsoil  is  mixed  with  the 
top  soil — in  fact  in  filling  the  subsoil  is  usually  left 
on  top — and  there  will  grow  the  best  alfalfa  with- 
out question.  Even  in  a  dry  year  the  effect  is  very 
marked,  the  narrow  strip  of  land  where  the  tile  ditch 
stood  sending  up  alfalfa  like  a  ridge,  often  12  or 
more  inches  taller  than  the  rest  of  the  field.  The 
effect  is  more  marked  on  a  dry  year  than  on  a  wet 
one,  so  it  can  not  be  attributed  to  the  effect  of 
underdrainage  altogether. 

W^e  have  found  that  with  a  large  common  break- 
ing plow  we  could  go  down  10"  easily  enough,  if 
the  land  was  not  too  moist  nor  too  dry.  After  that 
a  smaller  plow  can  follow  and  go  4"  or  5"  deeper. 
Not  much  of  this  last  soil  will  be  thrown  clear  of 
the  furrow,  but  it  will  become  well  mixed  through 
with  the  top  soil.  Woodland  Farm  has  only  be- 
gun experimentation  along  this  line,  but  we  are 
quite  well  persuaded  that  by  the  time  the  reader 
sees  these  lines  we  will  have  abundant  proof  of  the 
great  use  of  this  deep  plowing.  We  are  ready  to 
advise  only  in  fairly  fertile  soils,  especially  if  the 
subsoil  has  more  lime  than  the  surface,  a  depth  of 
plowing  of  12"  or  16"  or  as  deep  as  you  can  go. 


194  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Plowing,  like  the  tariff,  is  "a. local  matter,"  so 
each  farmer  had  better  test  the  thing  for  himself. 
On  his  own  soil  deep  plowing  may  not  work  so  well. 
It  is  easily  tested  on  a  small  scale  in  any  event. 

Subsoiling. — A  subsoil  plow  is  one  that  merely 
runs  in  the  furrow  and  loosens  up  the  underlying 
soil.  It  does  not  bring  any  of  it  up  to  the  surface. 
Subsoiled  land  has  much  greater  water-holding  ca- 
pacity than  before  it  was  subsoiled.  Sometimes  this 
fact  is  a  detriment,  if  the  land  is  poorly  drained. 
It  is  difficult  to  subsoil  land  that  has  in  it  boulders 
or  large  stones.  Subsoiled  land  erodes  less  than 
other  land,  because  the  water  sinks  readily  into  the 
subsoil  and  there  is  thus  a  great  reservoir  of  satu- 
rated earth  which  in  turn  gives  moisture  to  the  over- 
lying soil.  In  all  hilly  regions  where  there  is  dan- 
ger of  erosion,  as  in  east  Tennessee,  subsoiling  has 
been  found  to  be  a  more  useful  practice. 

Not  so  much  work  has  been  done  in  subsoiling 
for  alfalfa  as  should  be  done.  I  have  only  done 
such  subsoiling  as  I  described  in  the  ditching  work 
done  on  Woodland  Farm.  That  has  convinced 
me,  however,  that  some  day  much  land  will  in  some 
way  be  loosened  up  here  and  the  yield  of  alfalfa 
be  increased  at  least  25%,  and  probably  more. 

On  the  Eappahannock  Eiver,  in  Virginia,  J.  F. 
Jack  has  tested  subsoiling  in  a  limited  way  and  the 
result  has  been  very  markedly  good.  In  truth  sub- 
soiling  tested  alongside  of  additional  fertilization 
gave  markedly  superior  results.  Other  men  have 
related  to  me  their  experiences  with  subsoiling,  but 


PLOWING   THE   SOIL.  195 

so  far  as  I  am  aware  nothing  has  been  done  in  ex- 
periment station  work  along  this  line.  On  all  hard 
clays  and  wherever  it  is  desirable  that  more  water 
be  stored  in  the  subsoil  I  advise  the  use  of  the  sub- 
soil plow.  It  would  certainly  be  wise  to  test  it  in  a 
small  way  at  first,  then  if  results  seemed  good  it 
could  be  adopted  as  a  part  of  the  regular  practice. 

In  Europe  it  is  not  unknown  to  trench  or  dig 
up  a  field  with  spades  to  a  depth  of  36",  mixing  top 
and  bottom  soils,  and  land  thus  treated,  well  limed, 
well  manured,  yields  crops  that  would  astonish  an 
American  farmer,  even  if  living  on  the  richest  soils. 

Plowing  for  Spring  Sowing. — When  alfalfa  is  to 
be  sown  in  the  spring  it  is  well  to  get  the  plowing 
done  early,  this  so  that  the  land  will  settle  together 
again  and  make  a  better  seedbed  for  the  seedling 
plants.  Freshly  plowed  land  is  too  loose  to  hold 
moisture  near  the  surface  well.  Thus  it  is  best 
to  plow  for  alfalfa  in  the  fall  or  during  the  winter. 
If  lime  is  to  be  applied  it  is  best  to  apply  it  imme- 
diately after  the  plowing,  or  after  one  dragging  of 
the  land.  Then  it  is  disked  in  and  mixed  well  with 
the  soil. 

If  the  plowing  can  not  be  done  early  it  may  be 
done  immediately  before  seeding,  but  then  more 
care  must  be  taken  to  firm  the  soil  again  and  make 
a  good  seedbed.  Going  over  it  several  times  with 
the  disk  harrow  is  one  way  to  firm  it,  or  to  roll  it 
with  a  heavy  roller  and  afterward  disking  it  will 
bring  the  top  soil  into  capillary  connection  with  the 
subsoil. 


196  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

It  is  not  so  necessary  to  get  a  perfect  seedbed  in 
spring  sowing  as  it  is  when  sowing  in  the  fall.  There 
is  much  more  moisture  in  the  spring  and  heavy 
rains  will  probably  come  to  compact  the  seedbed, 
yet  drouths  are  to  be  looked  for  at  any  time,  so 
one  should  do  his  part  well  in  any  case. 

Example  of  Spring  Sowing. — Take  Woodland 
Farm,  where  always  of  recent  years  seeding  has 
been  done  early  in  April.  This  farm  is  about  on  the 
40th  parallel,  in  the  latitude  of  Columbus,  0.,  Phila- 
delphia and  Springfield,  111.  Spring  seeding  is  done 
here  because  of  the  climate  and  soil.  Singularly 
enough  at  this  point  on  the  curve  of  the  earth  there 
seems  more  fighting  of  the  elements  than  either 
north  or  south  of  us.  At  Wooster,  0.,  some  80 
miles  north  of  us,  snow  and  frozen  ground  prevail 
during  a  much  longer  time  in  winter  than  with  us. 
Thus  at  Wooster  they  find  fall  seeding  of  alfalfa  a 
better  thing  than  spring  seeding,  while  we  have  had 
very  poor  success  indeed  with  fall  s'eeding,  which 
usually  lifts  out  of  the  ground  during  the  repeated 
freezes  and  thaws  of  winter. 

Disk,  Harrow  and  Drag. — Land  destined  for  al- 
falfa is  almost  always  planted  to  corn  the  year  be- 
fore and  given  very  clean  and  careful  cultivation. 
For  the  corn  crop  as  much  manure  as  was  available 
was  applied.  The  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  or  win- 
ter if  there  is  time  and  the  soil  is  found  fit.  The 
plows  are  set  to  run  as  deep  as  practicable.  In  this 
practice  we  are  reforming  steadily  year  by  year, 
deepening  our  soil  as  fast  as  we  well  can.  As  soon 


PLOWING  THE  SOIL.  197 

as  danger  of  hard  freezing  is  over,  say  by  April  10, 
when  the  land  is  dry  enough  to  be  fit  to  till,  we  go 
afield  with  disk  harrows.  The  cutaway  double  disk 
harrows  suit  us  very  well  for  this  purpose.  Fol- 
lowing the  disk  harrow  goes  the  slant-tooth  smooth- 
ing harrow,  which  levels  the  land  quite  well. 
After  the  smoothing  harrow  goes  the  plank  drag. 
This  makes  a  smooth  surface,  free  from  clods.  The 
drag  is  made  of  three  planks,  about  2x12,  lapped 
together  like  shingles  and  bolted  together.  The 
drag  makes  drilling  easier  and  a  better  seed-bed. 

Sometimes  the  fertilizer  is  sown  before  the  land  is 
dragged,  sometimes  afterward.  This  point  is  not 
very  material.  As  already  described,  we  commonly 
sow  acid  phosphate  of  about  16  per  cent  grade,  be- 
cause it  is  cheaper  with  us  than  bone  meal  or  any 
other  carrier  of  phosphorus.  We  sow  no  potash 
except  on  black  peaty  soils,  once  beds  of  swamps. 
Lime  we  have  applied  earlier;  it  is  best  to  have  it 
incorporated  with  the  soil  some  weeks  or  even 
months  before  sowing  the  seed  when  this  is  pos- 
sible. 

Seeding  with  Drill. — After  the  drag  comes  the 
drill.  We  use  a  drill  with  grass  seed  attachment 
that  sows  both  barley  and  alfalfa  seed.  The  alfalfa 
seed  is  sometimes  set  to  fall  in  front  of  the  drill 
and  sometimes  to  fall  behind,  depending  somewhat 
on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  On  stiff  clay  land  it  will 
not  do  to  bury  alfalfa  seed  very  deep.  On  lighter 
looser  soils  they  will  come  up  through  an  inch  of 
soil. 


198  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

The  drill  is  set  to  sow  two  bushels  of  beardless 
spring  barley  to  the  acre.  This  barley  does  not  stool 
heavily.  It  is  not  a  very  prolific  barley  either,  but  it 
makes  a  good  nurse  crop  for  alfalfa.  The  facts  that 
it  does  not  often  lodge  and  does  not  much  shade  the 
young  alfalfa  are  all  in  its  favor. 


SEEDING  AND  GUTTING. 

About  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  are  sown.  We 
have  used  more  and  have  used  as  little  as  8  pounds. 
In  the  long  run  there  seems  little  difference  in  the 
yield  of  hay,  but  on  the  whole  we  prefer  to  use  15 
pounds  of  seed. 

Work  After  Seeding. — If  the  land  is  very  dry, 
we  follow  the  drill  with  a  roller.  We  seldom  do 
this,  however,  since  there  is  always  danger  that  rain 
may  follow  and  further  compact  the  land,  making 
it  hard  for  seeds  to  get  up.  We  very  much  prefer 
to  get  the  under  part  of  the  seedbed  firm  before 
putting  on  the  seed.  We  sometimes  follow  the  drill 
with  the  plank  drag  again.  We  aim  always  to  leave 
the  land  quite  level  and  smooth,  so  that  the  mower 
will  run  nicely. 

Inoculation. — With  us  no  inoculation  is  needed, 
nor  was  it  ever  needed  seriously  on  Woodland 
Farm.  Just  why  this  was  true  we  can  not  imagine 
except  that  our  father  had  allowed  some  few  clumps 
of  melilotus  to  grow  and  that  he  had  always  used  a 
good  deal  of  manure.  For  some  unexplained  rea- 
son manured  land  is  nearly  always  inoculated  with 
alfalfa  bacteria,  illogical  as  the  statement  seems. 
Inoculation  comes  in  about  a  month,  little  nodules 
by  that  time  appearing  on  nearly  every  rootlet. 

Further   Treatment. — It   is   seen  how   easily  we 

(199) 


200  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

sow  alfalfa,  with  what  slight  labor  and  expense,  yet 
magnificent  stands  are  secured  in  every  instance 
We  have  not  one  record  of  failure  where  this  system 
has  been  followed  on  Woodland  Farm  except  in 
a  few  spots  where  the  barley  lodged  badly  and  was 
not  soon  enough  removed. 

The  further  treatment  of  the  field  is  to  let  it  alone 
till  the  barley  comes  into  bloom.  Then  we  go  in 
with  mowers  and  cut  it  all  down  and  make  it  into 
hay.  By  that  time  the  alfalfa  will  be  needing  a 
clipping.  Sometimes  we  wait  till  the  grain  is  be- 
ginning to  form  in  the  heads,  but  usually  we  take 
off  the  barley  hay  earlier  than  that. 

Time  to  Cut. — The  test  of  when  young  alfalfa  is 
ready  to  clip  is  when  the  plants  put  out  little  buds 
or  shoots  down  near  the  ground,  at  the  bases  of  the 
stems.  It  ought  never  to  be  clipped  before  then. 
After  that  time  it  ought  to  be  clipped  promptly,  as 
one  must  not  cut  off  these  new  shoots  with  the 
mower.  We  have  said  this  before  and  will  repeat  it 
again  as  the  point  is  so  essential  to  success. 

Why  Make  Barley  Hay? — Why  do  we  not  let  the 
barley  ripen  its  grain!  Because  if  we  were  to  do 
that  it  would  seriously  weaken  the  young  alfalfa. 
Ripening  grain  takes  a  tremendous  amount  of 
moisture  from  the  ground.  It  also  not  infrequently 
lodges  and  this  smothers  out  the  young  alfalfa. 
Very  little  shading  or  mulching  will  kill  it.  So  it 
is  better  to  make  hay  of  the  barley.  It  makes  good 
hay;  all  animals  love  it.  It  is  more  profitable  made 
into  hay  than  used  in  any  other  form. 


I, 


BARLEY  AS  A  NURSE  CROP  FOR  ALFALFA. 


SEEDING    AND    CUTTING.  201 

Subsequent  Cuttings. — When  the  barley  is  taken 
away  the  alfalfa  comes  vigorously  on  and  makes 
another  cutting  in  about  40  or  50  days.  The  time 
to  cut  this  is  judged  by  the  buds  or  shoots  upon 
the  stems,  just  as  at  the  first.  This  is  in  fact  the 
inviolable  rule  in  cutting  alfalfa  if  you  would  pre- 
serve its  vigor  and  productiveness. 

After  this  cutting  it  is  left  strictly  alone.  No  one 
trespasses  again  on  the  alfalfa,  no  animals  graze 
it,  no  mower  invades  its  domain.  It  may  be  24 
inches  high  when  killing  frosts  come;  no  matter; 
leave  it  stand  and  next  year  you  will  gain  all  that 
and  much  more  with  it. 

Value  of  Barley  Nurse  Crops. — Why  the  nurse 
crop  with  spring  sowings?  First,  because  there  is 
pretty  good  profit  in  beardless  barley  hay.  We 
feed  it  to  all  our  animals.  The  alfalfa  has  grown 
about  as  well  for  the  presence  of  the  barley  as  it 
would  have  grown  alone.  And  the  barley  rather 
subdues  other  annual  grasses.  There  is  a  curious 
principle  in  Nature  that  some  plants  are  delete- 
rious to  other  plants.  Cockle  burrs,  for  instance, 
poison  land  for  corn,  and  where  barley  grows  well 
foxtail  grass  is  not  so  much  seen.  Then  when  the 
barley  is  taken  away  the  alfalfa  seems  to  push  right 
on,  almost  unmolested.  We  can  get  a  much  better 
stand  of  alfalfa  with  a  nurse  crop  of  beardless 
spring  barley  than  we  can  to  sow  it  alone,  and  we 
get  the  barley  hay  as  a  clear  gift. 

Other  Nurse  Crops. — Why  not  choose  oats  as  a 
nurse  crop!  With  us  they  are  not  nearly  as  de- 


202  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

sirable.     When  oats  are  left  to  ripen  their  grain 
a  poor  stand  of  alfalfa  is  almost  inevitable. 

I  have  often  sown  oats  with  alfalfa,  mowing 
them  for  hay  when  in  bloom  with  good  results. 
When  oats  are  sown  no  more  than  a  bushel  of  seed 
should  be  sown  to  the  acre.  If  the  soil  is  very  rich 
and  the  seedbed  very  good  three  pecks  per  acre 
will  be  enough  seed,  or  even  a  less  amount.  Oats 
stool  much  more  vigorously  than  barley  and  thus 
thicken  up  and  shade  the  alfalfa  plants  too  much. 

Oats  must  be  mown  off  earlier  even  than  barley 
to  leave  good  stand  of  alfalfa.  When  the  little  sta- 
mens begin  to  hang  out  from  the  oat  heads  then  cut 
for  hay  at  once.  Or  if  the  oats  should  lodge  mow 
immediately  and  remove  from  the  ground.  Oats 
make  more  hay  than  barley,  but  it  is  harder  to  cure. 

Flax  has  sometimes  been  used  as  a  nurse  crop 
for  alfalfa  with  pretty  good  success. 

Alfalfa  is  sown  in  wheat  successfully  in  some 
places.  It  is  absolutely  necessary  that  the  land  be 
previously  inoculated,  or  that  the  inoculating  earth 
be  put  and  harrowed  in  before  the  alfalfa  is  sown, 
or  failure  will  surely  result.  It  is  necessary  to 
harrow  the  wheat  and  make  a  fair  seedbed  so  that 
the  alfalfa  seed  may  be  covered.  On  the  whole, 
wheat  is  not  a  good  nurse  crop  for  alfalfa,  since 
if  the  soil  is  rich  it  is  apt  to  lodge  and  smother  out 
the  baby  plants. 

Oowpeas,  soy  beans,  rape,  Canada  field  peas,  all 
these  things  have  repeatedly  been  tried  with  no 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  203 

success  whatever.  They  shade  too  much  and 
smother  out  the  alfalfa. 

Fall  rye  sown  in  the  spring  is  advocated  by  a  New 
Jersey  man  who  used  it  thus  nearly  100  years  ago. 
I  have  not  tested  it,  but  have  my  suspicions. 

Alfalfa  may  be  sown  with  corn  at  th£  time  of  last 
cultivation  in  July.  Thus  sown  it  makes  almost  a 
stand,  never  quite  a  perfect  stand.  The  corn  robs 
the  land  a  little  too  much  of  moisture  to  allow  the 
alfalfa  to  get  rightly  rooted.  There  is  also  a  little 
too  much  shade.  Should  alfalfa  seed  ever  become 
cheap  again  it  would  pay  to  sow  it  in  corn  for  soil 
improvement,  even  if  it  was  turned  over  next  year 
in  late  May  and  again  planted  to  corn. 

Where  Are  Nurse  Crops  Permissible? — In  Ohio, 
Illinois,  Indiana  and  probably  Iowa  and  Missouri 
a  nurse  crop  may  be  often  as  good  a  thing  as  it  is 
on  Woodland  Farm.  Much  depends  upon  whether 
it  is  intelligently  used.  To  sow  grain  thickly  and 
to  let  it  ripen  on  the  land  may  very  likely  prove 
most  injurious  to  the  alfalfa.  If  a  man  knows  his 
failings,  if  he  is  too  greedy  to  cut  the  nurse  crop 
at  the  right  time,  or  too  careless,  he  had  better 
not  sow  one  at  all,  but  sow  the  alfalfa  alone. 

West  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  it  is  usually  too  dry 
to  permit  the  use  of  a  nurse  crop.  South  of  the  Ohio 
Eiver  it  is  safer  and  better  to  sow  alone  in  the  fall 
or  mid-summer  with  no  nurse  crop. 

It  is  most  tempting  when  one  sees  a  magnificent 
growth  of  oats  or  barley  on  the  land  to  say,  "I  must 
let  that  ripen;  it  is  too  fine  to  cut  down  for  hay"; 


204  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

and  the  letting  it  ripen  will  usually  damage  the 
alfalfa  stand  about  25  to  50  per  cent.  I  have  re- 
peatedly asked  a  lady  for  a  half-cup  of  tea  and 
never  in  my  life  found  but  one  who  could  give  it ! 
All  the  rest  would  fill  the  cup  full.  So  if  the  reader 
is  one  of  the  few  men  who  can  resolve  to  cut  his 
nurse  crop  for  hay  at  the  proper  time,  he  should, 
if  he  lives  in  a  similar  climate  to  ours,  use  a  nurse 
crop.  Otherwise  he  should  sow  alfalfa  alone. 

Fall  Seeding  of  Alfalfa. — There  seems  a  large 
area  where  fall  seeding  is  more  successful  than 
spring  seeding.  Where  fall  seeding  succeeds  it  is 
the  cheaper  way.  The  use  of  the  land  is  not  lost  for 
any  appreciable  time,  and  often  one  gets  a  full  crop 
of  some  sort  of  grain  before  seeding  his  alfalfa. 
Northern  Ohio  seems  adapted  to  fall  or  rather  mid- 
summer seeding  of  alfalfa ;  also  New  York,  in  parts 
at  least,  a  good  deal  of  Pennsylvania  and  much  of 
Maryland,  Virginia,  Kentucky  and  Tennessee.  In 
Missouri  some  practice  one  way,  some  another ;  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  seem  to  get  good  results  from  fall, 
or  better,  mid-summer  seeding.  In  Iowa  summer 
seeding  is  advised. 

The  reason  why  alfalfa  usually  thrives  when  sown 
in  mid-summer  or  early  fall  is  that  then  there  is 
less  crowding  by  weeds  and  especially  by  annual 
grass.  Furthermore,  alfalfa  is  a  heat-loving  plant 
and  it  pushes  rapidly  forward  if  the  seedbed  is  good 
and  it  gets  started  in  late  July  or  August.  It  is 
very  essential,  that  the  seedbed  be  good,  and  no 
pains  should  be  spared  to  make  it  so. 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  205 

Spring  Ploiving  and  Summer  Solving. — Some 
have  practiced  spring  plowing  of  the  land  and  after- 
ward harrowing  it  after  every  rain,  after  every 
appearance  of  weed  growth,  until  all  the  weed  seeds 
are  killed,  then  sowing  the  alfalfa  alone  in  July. 
Usually  this  results  in  a  good  stand.  The  cost  is 
considerable.  No  return  from  the  land  is  had  at 
all  for  one  year  and  the  repeated  harrowings  cost 
quite  a  little.  It  is  one  of  the  surest  ways,  perhaps, 
of  getting  alfalfa  started  in  land  very  foul  with 
grass  and  weeds.  I  do  not  advise  this  plan  except 
in  cases  where  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  get  a  stand. 
By  harrowing  well  after  each  rain  nearly  all  of 
the  moisture  is  conserved.  Thus  it  is  a  plan  well 
adapted  to  use  in  semi-arid  regions  where  it  is  not 
easy  to  establish  alfalfa  because  of  lack  of  moisture 
in  the  soil.  In  such  situations  the  land  should  be 
plowed  in  the  fall  and  disked  after  each  rain  or 
snow  fall  and  all  care  possible  taken  to  conserve  the 
moisture  that  falls.  After  once  the  land  is  moist 
down  to  a  depth  of  a  foot  or  more  and  a  thoroughly 
good  seedbed  is  secured  then  the  alfalfa  may  be 
sown,  though  in  such  situations  it  is  usually  well  to 
defer  sowing  till  August.  The  state  of  tilth  of 
soil  and  the  amount  of  available  moisture  are  more 
important  determining  factors,  however,  than  the 
time  of  year  in  dry  regions,  where  alfalfa  does  not 
heave  out  by  frost  in  any  event. 

I  can  not  from  my  own  experience  recommend 
this  plan  of  seeding  for  any  states  in  the  cornbelt 
region,  since  it  is  an  unnecessary  expense  and  no 


206  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

more  successful,  so  far  as  I  have  seen,  than  several 
other  less  costly  plans. 

Seeding  After  Early  Potatoes. — The  land  may  be 
plowed  early  and  deep,  fitted  as  soon  as  it  is  ready 
to  work  and  planted  to  potatoes,  choosing  some  very 
early  maturing  variety.  There  is  hardly  any  better 
plan  than  this.  The  potatoes  well  repay  high  manur- 
ing and  fertilization.  They  should  have  plenty  of 
phosphoric  acid  given  them;  in  the  eastern  states 
it  is  common  to  give  early  potatoes  as  much  as  500 
to  1,000  pounds  of  high  grade  acid  phosphate  per 
acre;  potash  also  usually  tells  a  good  tale  when 
applied  to  potatoes.  Thus  if  the  crop  is  highly  fer- 
tilized there  remains  a  good  surplus  in  the  soil 
available  to  the  alfalfa. 

The  potatoes  well  repay  good  cultivation  and  thus 
weeds  are  destroyed  and  when  the  potatoes  are  dug 
the  land  is  left  clean  and  thoroughly  well  loosened 
up.  It  is  an  easy  matter  then  to  level  it  off,  disk 
it  well  and  get  ready  for  alfalfa  seeding.  This  can 
usually  be  done  in  July  and  as  soon  as  the  pota- 
toes are  fit  to  dig  and  sell  they  should  come  out 
to  make  room  for  the  alfalfa,  the  more  important 
crop  of  the  two  by  odds. 

Do  not  plow  the  potato  land.  Disk  it  very  thor- 
oughly, then  disk  it  again.  If  the  soil  is  too  dry  to 
make  alfalfa  grow,  wait  for  rain  before  sowing  the 
seed.  Should  there  come  a  shower,  disk  again  and 
wait  for  a  rain  that  will  moisten  the  underlying 
soil.  There  is  danger  in  sowing  alfalfa  seed  in  the 
dust,  expecting  rain  to  come  and  bring  it  forward. 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  207 

Rain  may  come,  certainly,  but  often  in  only  sufficient 
amount  to  bring  the  seed  up,  or  merely  to  germinate 
it,  and  underneath  there  is  dust.  Thus  the  seed- 
lings perish  before  they  can  get  their  rootlets  at- 
tached to  the  subsoil.  So  wait  till  there  is  moist 
soil  enough  not  merely  to  bring  up  the  seeds  but 
to  let  their  rootlets  feed  and  penetrate  on  down. 

Inoculation  an  Aid. — When  sowing  alfalfa  either 
in  July  or  August  one  must  remember  that  the  time 
until  fall  and  killing  frosts  is  short,  so  do  all  that  he 
can  to  hurry  it  forward.  Thus  it  is  well  if  the  land 
has  never  had  alfalfa  on  it  before,  nor  ever  been 
manured  with  manure  made  from  feeding  alfalfa 
hay,  to  inoculate  the  soil.  Inoculation  hastens 
growth  in  young  alfalfa  immensely.  Soil  from  a 
successful  alfalfa  field,  or  soil  from  a  patch  of  mel- 
ilotus  or  sweet  clover,  or  soil  from  where  burr 
clover  grew  is  usually  successful  in  inoculating  al- 
falfa. The  various  cultures  of  beneficent  bacteria 
have  not  worked  well  in  field  practice,  we  regret  to 
say.  So  take  earth  from  some  other  field  and  inoc- 
ulate the  place  you  expect  to  put  your  new  sown 
alfalfa  in.  There  are  various  ways  of  distributing 
this  inoculation.  If  the  soil  has  been  thoroughly 
well  limed,  or  is  naturally  well  stored  with  carbon- 
ate of  lime,  and  if  it  has  had  some  manure,  inocula- 
tion will  "take"  in  it  and  go  through  the  field  very 
rapidly,  once  give  it  a  start. 

Seeding. — Sow  it  in  any  manner  most  convenient, 
either  through  a  wheelbarrow  seeder  or  through  a 
drill,  taking  great  care  not  to  drill  it  in  too  deep. 


208  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

Go  immediately  over  the  land  with  an  efficient  har- 
row, trying  to*  cover  the  seed  one  inch  deep.  It 
is  no  harm  to  apply  more  fertilizer  at  the  time  of 
sowing  this  seed.  It  will  only  push  the  young  plants 
the  more  rapidly  forward. 

In  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  Indiana,  Illinois  and  other 
states  of  like  climates  this  seeding  should  be  done 
in  late  July  or  early  August.  It  is  essential  to  get 
the  plants  strongly  rooted  before  winter  sets  in 
with  its  frosts  and  cold.  The  stronger  the  root  the 
less  liability  to  winter  killing. 

Subsequent  Treatment. — No  clipping,  no  pastur- 
ing nor  any  other  treatment  should  be  given  the 
alfalfa  this  season.  Simply  let  it  alone  and  keep 
all  animals  out  of  it.  The  only  thing  that  might 
cause  a  man  to  meddle  with  it  would  be  if  he  should 
discover  some  dodder  in  the  field.  This  should  be 
destroyed  as  soon  as  seen.  Pull  up  the  infected 
plants  and  burn  them.  Throw  down  a  little  straw 
on  the  spot  where  the  dodder  has  appeared  and  set 
it  on  fire.  Dodder  is  worse  than  fire  to  alfalfa.  No 
other  weeds  will  be  apt  to  trouble.  If  any  large, 
coarse  weeds  should  come  up  they  may  be  pulled 
up  by  hand. 

There  is  hardly  any  better  way  of  starting  alfalfa 
than  this  if  a  man  has  a  liking  for  potatoes.  The 
crop  usually  pays  well  for  use  of  the  land,  and  the 
alfalfa  crop  comes  on  strong  and  is  secured  at 
the  least  possible  expense. 

Summary. — Summarizing  the  process  of  sowing 
alfalfa  after  potatoes,  the  essentials  are,  first,  selec- 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  209 

tion  of  good  dry  rich  land,  with  plenty  of  lime  in  it, 
or  else  applying  liberally  of  lime  before  planting. 

Deep  plowing  and  somewhat  high  fertilization  for 
the  potato  crop.  Planting  as  early  as  practicable 
of  a  very  early -maturing  variety  of  potatoes. 

Very  careful  cultivation  that  will  conserve  all 
possible  moisture  and  destroy  the  weeds  well. 

Digging  as  early  as  possible  and  immediate  prep- 
aration of  the  soil  for  alfalfa. 

Inoculating  when  needed  with  soil  from  a  success- 
ful alfalfa  field  or  a  sweet  clover  patch  and  sowing 
the  seed  as  soon  as  there  is  a  good  seedbed  and 
enough  moisture  in  it.  Covering  the  seed  about  an 
inch  deep  with  the  harrow. 

Leaving  the  alfalfa  alone,  no  matter  how  high  it 
gets,  leaving  all  the  growth  to  protect  it  in  winter. 

Fall  Seeding  After  Wheat. — It  is  often  desirable 
to  sow  alfalfa  after  a  crop  of  grain.  This  is  prac- 
tical enough  if  the  season  proves  not  too  dry.  Al- 
falfa best  follows  a  crop  of  winter  grain,  since  that 
ripens  earlier  than  spring  sown  grain.  Perhaps  the 
worst  defect  in  the  practice  of  following  alfalfa 
after  wheat  arises  from  the  fact  that  if  the  land 
is  as  fertile  as  it  ought  to  be  to  grow  a  heavy  crop 
of  alfalfa  the  wheat  is  apt  to  lodge.  There  are 
soils,  however,  so  well  balanced  that  they  will  grow 
both  excellent  wheat  and  heavy  crops  of  afalfa.  I 
have  seen  in  France  wheat  as  high  as  oxens'  backs, 
yet  not  lodged  at  all,  growing  on  alfalfa  sod,  and 
destined  to  grow  alfalfa  again  in  the  regular  rota- 
tion. 


210     v  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Preparation  for  Crop. — When  alfalfa  is  to  follow 
wheat  the  land  may  be  well  limed  in  the  fall  before 
the  wheat  is  sown,  if  it  is  in  need  of  lime.  As  early 
as  possible  the  wheat  shocks  should  be  taken  off 
and  immediately  the  plow  started  in  the  stubble, 
Now  is  a  dangerous  time,  since  one  may  so  easily 
lose  his  moisture  and  get  instead  of  a  seedbed  a 
mass  of  sunbaked  clods  that  no  harrowing  will  re- 
duce to  fineness.  To  avoid  this  each  half  day  what 
land  is  plowed  should  be  fitted  by  use  of  harrow  and 
drag,  or  perhaps  use  of  roller,  followed  at  once  by 
harrow.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  fit  each  evening  what 
has  been  plowed  during  the  day,  but  each  half  day's 
work  must  be  completed  within  that  half  day.  This 
is  also  much  the  easier  way.  An  hour  spent  upon 
freshly  turned  land  will  do  more  than  a  half  day 
after  the  furrows  have  dried  out  into  hard  clods. 

Be  not  content,  either,  with  a  half  preparation  of 
the  land.  Do  a  good  job  of  it.  Use  drag,  disk  and 
smoothing  harrow.  Make  the  earth  fine.  Seal  up 
in  it  all  the  moisture  it  holds.  It  is  work  well  spent. 
Since  it  must  be  done  in  any  event  it  is  wise  and 
economical  to  do  it  immediately  it  is  plowed,  when 
an  hour's  work  is  worth  a  half  day's  later  on.  In 
order  to  do  this  best  it  may  be  well  to  let  the  man 
who  does  the  plowing  work  till  about  9:30  in  the 
morning,  then,  unhitching  from  the  plow,  hitch  to 
the  plank  drag  and  go  over  what  he  has  plowed  with 
that.  Unhitching  from  it,  hitch  to  the  disk  harrow, 
and  after  disking  then  go  over  it  with  the  slant-tooth 
smoothing  harrow,  which  finishes  it  pretty  well  and 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  211 

effectually  seals  the  land  so  that  no  moisture  can 
escape.  Of  course  if  several  teams  are  plowing  one 
man  may  follow  steadily  with  tools  for  fitting  the 
land. 

Save  the  moisture.  It  is  wise  not  to  sow  the 
seed  before  there  is  plenty  of  moisture  stored.  In 
this  connection  the  reader  should  study  the  preced- 
ing advice  upon  summer  seeding.  Save  all  the 
moisture  you  have  and  accumulate  as  much  more 
as  you  possibly  can  before  sowing  the  seed.  And 
yet  one  can  not  safely  delay  sowing  longer  than 
till  about  the  10th  of  August,  and  if  it  can  be  sown  in 
a  good  seedbed  with  sufficient  moisture  by  the  first 
of  August  all  the  better.  The  time  of  sowing  is  a 
local  question.  In  Louisiana  one  can  safely  sow 
the  last  of  October,  yet  north  of  the  Ohio  Eiver  late 
July  and  early  August  sowing  is  much  safer  than 
any  later  sowing. 

Inoculation  in  Advance. — It  is  well  to  inoculate 
the  soil  for  this  fall  seeding,  and  the  reader  is  asked 
to  note  with  care  what  has  been  written  elsewhere 
on  this  subject.  One  way  of  getting  this  inoculation 
in  a  wheat  stubble  is  to  sow  some  alfalfa  seed  in 
the  wheat  in  March.  If  5  pounds  are  then  sown  and 
harrowed  in  with  a  sprinkling  of  inoculating  earth, 
say  100  pounds  to  the  acre,  and  the  soil  and  seed 
mixed  together,  it  is  probable  that  a  fair  growth  of 
alfalfa  will  result  and  the  inoculation  spread 
throughout  the  whole  land.  Then  when  the  land  is 
plowed  again  and  the  young  alfalfa  turned  under 
the  inoculation  will  be  spread.  Quite  a  little  benefit 


212  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

will  be  seen  from  the  fertilizing  effect  of  the  young 
alfalfa  turned  under.  And  further  one  can  judge 
quite  well  by  the  growth  of  this  spring  sown  alfalfa 
as  to  the  state  of  fitness  of  his  land,  whether  maybe 
it  needs  more  lime,  more  drainage  or  further  enrich- 
ing. The  cost  need  not  concern  you,  since  with  good 
inoculation  present  less  seed  need  be  sown  in  the 
fall.  Indeed  15  pounds  of  seed  sown  on  a  good 
seedbed  well  inoculated  will  give  a  better  stand 
than  will  30  pounds  sown  on  a  poorly  prepared  seed- 
bed or  without  good  inoculation. 

Ordinarily  it  is  of  no  use  to  sow  alfalfa  seed  with 
the  wheat  in  the  fall.  It  usually  perishes  during 
winter.  There  are  soils  and  climates,  however, 
where  it  will  succeed  fairly  well  thus  sown,  and  by 
this  means  good  inoculation  could  be  had.  Five 
pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  with  about  100  pounds 
of  inoculating  earth  should  be  sown  then. 

All  in  all,  to  sow  after  wheat  is  a  good  prac- 
tice wherever  fall  seeding  is  desired  and  a  soil-build- 
ing cover  crop  is  not  needed  to  prepare  the  land  for 
alfalfa  growing.  The  one  danger  is  that  there  may 
not  be  enough  moisture  stored  to  give  good  fall 
growth.  The  alfalfa  must  not  be  clipped  nor  pas- 
tured the  fall  it  is  sown.  The  next  year  it  is  cut 
three  or  four  times,  as  would  be  any  ordinary  alfalfa 
field. 

Alfalfa  After  Spring  Barley. — Spring-sown  grain 
has  some  advantages  for  alfalfa  sowing.  For  one 
thing  the  soil  is  more  easily  got  ready  for  alfalfa 
after  the  grain  is  removed.  Then  these  grains  are 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  218 

not  so  apt  to  lodge  if  the  soil  is  rich.  Beardless  spring 
barley  is  particularly  appropriate  here.  It  ripens 
very  early  and  does  not  often  lodge.  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  make  the  soil  too  rich  for  spring  bar- 
ley. It  is  advisable  to  plow  the  land  for  these  spring 
crops  and  to  plow  it  deep.  It  is  well  always  to  sow 
a  small  amount  of  alfalfa  seed  with  the  barley. 
If  it  is  the  custom  to  sow  20  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed 
in  the  fall  it  will  be  much  better  to  sow  5  pounds  of 
this  in  the  spring  at  time  of  seeding  the  barley.  This 
will  help  the  inoculation  very  much  indeed  and  the 
15  pounds  sown  in  the  fall  will  give  a  better  stand 
than  would  the  whole  20  pounds  sown  at  that  time. 

The  same  rules  laid  down  for  sowing  after  pota- 
toes and  wheat  apply  with  equal  force  for  sowing 
after  spring  barley  and  should  be  studied. 

The  one  trouble  with  all  this  scheme  is  that  it  pre- 
supposes a  very  fertile  soil  and  quite  a  little  rain- 
fall in  late  July  and  August.  Given  these  things 
one  ought  to  succeed  admirably  following  this  plan. 

Alfalfa  After  Oats. — What  has  been  said  of  seed- 
ing after  barley  applies  fairly  well  to  oats.  The 
field  should  be  well  plowed  in  spring.  Five  pounds 
of  alfalfa  seed  should  be  sowed  to  each  acre  to  pro- 
mote inoculation.  If  no  alfalfa  has  ever  grown 
on  the  land  and  inoculation  is  doubted,  soil  should 
also  be  spread  or  sown  and  promptly  harrowed  un- 
der. Then  the  oats  if  cut  off  for  hay  will  leave  a 
far  better  seedbed  than  if  allowed  to  ripen.  Ripen- 
ing oats  draw  tremendously  on  the  soil  moisture.  It 
is  a  great  help  to  mow  them  off  for  hay  when  coming 


214  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

into  bloom.  Thus  the  land  may  be  prepared  very 
much  earlier  for  its  destined  crop  of  alfalfa. 

Alfalfa  After  Crimson  Clover. — Where  the  cli- 
mate is  mild  enough  to  permit  its  growth  crimson 
clover  forms  an  admirable  preparatory  crop  for  fall 
sown  alfalfa.  The  subject  is  mentioned  in  an  earlier 
chapter,  but  I  will  here  sum  up  its  advantages  and 
manner  of  use.  Crimson  clover  is  an  annual.  Sown 
in  the  late  summer  it  grows  during  the  fall  and 
whenever  it  can  during  warm  days  in  winter.  It 
makes  very  rapid  growth  in  spring,  blooms  in  May, 
ripens  seed  and  dies.  It  is  not  a  good  clover  for  for- 
age unless  fed  off  green.  Half  ripe  crimson  clover 
heads  are  dangerous  when  fed  to  animals,  making 
"hair  balls  "  in  their  stomachs  and  killing  them  some- 
times. A  fairly  good  crop  of  crimson  clover  will 
yield  to  the  soil  as  much  nitrogen  as  would  cost  $15 
per  acre,  if  one  were  to  purchase  it  in  the  bag.  It 
comes  off  or  goes  under  early  enough  to  make  easy 
the  preparation  of  a  good  seedbed.  There  is  seldom 
danger  of  insufficient  moisture  when  crimson  clover 
is  the  crop  preceding  alfalfa,  supposing  the  land  to 
be  well  managed  after  the  clover  is  ready  to  turn 
under. 

On  the  other  hand  crimson  clover  does  not  thrive 
well  without  inoculation,  and  natural  inoculation 
seems  absent  except  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard. 
Doubtless  artificial  soil  inoculation  would  result  in 
great  gain  with  this  plant  elsewhere.  Crimson  clo- 
ver provides  a  great  deal  of  very  valuable  humus. 

Mr.  Jack's  Use  of  Crimson  Clover. — In  eastern 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  215 

Virginia,  under  the  direction  of  C.  V.  Piper,  J.  M. 
Westgate  and  Nicholas  Schmitz  of  the  Department 
of  Agriculture,  J.  F.  Jack  is  sowing  what  may 
be  well  termed  an  alfalfa  ranch.  His  estate  consists 
of  nearly  2,000  acres  along  the  Rappahannock  River. 
When  Mr.  Jack  took  this  land  much  of  it  was  in  a 
most  impoverished  condition. 

The  land  is  first  plowed  and  planted  to  corn  with 
250  pounds  per  acre  of  raw  bone  meal.  Sometimes 
other  fertilizers  are  used.  The  plowing  is  deeper 
and  more  thorough  than  the  land  has  ever  known 
before. 

Next,  at  last  cultivation  of  corn,  crimson  clover 
seed  is  sown  at  the  rate  of  about  20  to  30  pounds 
per  acre.  A  small  growing  wild  hairy  clover  is 
found  on  these  fields  that  probably  inoculates  the 
crimson  clover  and  it  grows  well.  In  May  this 
crimson  clover  is  knee  high  all  over  the  fields.  Then 
it  is  turned  under,  plowing  about  8  inches  deep.  Lime 
is  put  on,  either  ground  limestone  at  the  rate  of 
about  2  to*  3  tons  per  acre  or  burned  lime.  Intensive 
cultivation  is  given  the  land  till  August,  the  pur- 
pose being  to  store  the  land  with  as  much  moisture 
as  possible. 

Then  men  come  and  sow  with  hand  labor  inoc- 
ulating earth.  This  Mr.  Jack  can  get  from  Eis 
own  farm,  though  originally  he  had  it  shipped  to 
him  from  sweet  clover  beds  along  the  Potomac 
Eiver.  Immediately  behind  the  men  who  distribute 
the  earth  walk  other  men  with  wheelbarrow  seeders 
and  distribute  alfalfa  seed.  Behind  these  men  come 


216  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

harrows  and  almost  instantly  the  seed  and  inocu- 
lating earth  are  covered  up.  The  fertilizer  is  usu- 
ally 400  pounds  per  acre  of  raw  bone  meal,  though 
other  sources  of  phosphorus  have  been  used  as  well. 

The  result  is  as  certain  as  mathematics.  Mr.  Jack 
at  Belle  Grove  gets  stands  of  alfalfa  every  time, 
good,  thrifty,  healthy,  profitable  alfalfa. 

It  is  very  notable,  however,  that  wherever  Mr. 
Jack  has  applied  a  little  manure  there  he  gets  much 
stronger  crimson  clover  and  much  heavier  alfalfa 
as  well.  It  is  not  yet  proved  that  a  man  can  build 
successfully  very  poor  soils  without  manures.  Cer- 
tainly the  work  is  greatly  accelerated  when  manures 
are  available. 

I  have  treated  at  some  length  the  experiences 
of  Mr.  Jack  because  I  know  of  no  more  impor- 
tant work  being  done  anywhere  in  the  east.  Here 
one  sees  land  taken  in  impoverished  condition  fairly 
representing  millions  of  acres  of  farming  lands  in 
the  older  eastern  states,  unprofitable  to  farm,  worth- 
less as  an  investment  unless  redeemed,  and  by  appli- 
cation of  plain  and  well  tested  agricultural  prin- 
ciples brought  rapidly  into  profitable  culture  again. 
Mr.  Jack's  success,  doing  this  work  on  a  large  scale 
and  as  a  business  venture,  is  a  lesson  in  soil  build- 
ing and  business  methods  in  farming  of  illumining 
importance  to  the  whole  farming  world. 

Rate  of  Seed  per  Acre. — There  are  in  a  bushel  of 
alfalfa  seed  about  14,000,000  seeds,  more  or  less, 
according  to  their  size  and  weight.  Thirty  pounds 
to  the  acre  then  would  put  about  160  seeds  to  the 


SEEDING  AND   CUTTING.  217 

square  foot — something  over  one  seed  to  each  square 
inch  of  soil.  An  alfalfa  plant  requires  about  16  to 
25  square  inches  of  space.  Thus  use  of  30  pounds 
of  seed  is  from  16  to  25  times  too  much,  supposing 
that  each  seed  dropped  made  a  living  plant.  When 
sown  in  drills  one  pound  of  seed  is  enough  for  an 
acre,  and  seeding  in  drills  will  be  a  practical  scheme 
in  America. 

One  pound  of  seed  per  acre  makes  approximately 
five  seeds  to  each  square  foot.  There  ought  to  be 
nine  plants  per  square  foot  to  make  a  good  stand 
on  ordinary  soil  fit  for  alfalfa  growing.  That  would 
require  two  pounds  of  seed,  sown  broadcast,  if 
every  seed  made  a  plant.  The  germination  of  alfalfa 
seeds  is  not  usually  perfect;  often  with  the  best 
seed  only  about  75  per  cent  will  germinate  the  first 
year.  And  not  every  seed  will  be  covered  right  for 
germination.  Thus  if  we  allow  half  to  perish  for 
lack  of  right  planting  we  will  come  to  a  need  of  four 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  to  give  an  ideally  perfect 
stand. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  this  amount  is  often  sown. 
Where  one  desires  to  grow  alfalfa  seed  a  thin  stand 
is  better  than  a  thick  stand  and  four  pounds  of  seed 
will  suffice.  Of  course  one  must  be  sure  of  his  seed- 
bed and  of  his  seed  if  he  ventures  to  use  so  thin  a 
seeding.  And  he  ought  to  be  sure  that  the  land  is 
inoculated.  On  inoculated  soil  a  thin  seeding  will 
give  a  better  stand  than  a  thick  seeding  will  on  un- 
inoculated  soil. 

The  Ohio  experiment  station  has  made  an  inter- 


218 


ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 


esting  test  of  this  very  matter  and  the  results  are 
herewith  recorded: 

The  Ohio  station  put  out  a  thick  and  thin  seeding  test  of 
alfalfa  June  27,  1907,  at  the  rates  of  5,  10,  15,  20  and  25  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre.  The  seed  was  distributed  through  the  grass- 
seeding  attachment  of  an  ordinary  wheat  drill  after  repeated  and 
careful  testing.  It  was  dropped  in  front  of  and  covered  by  the 
drill  hoes. 

The  results  of  this  test  thus  far  appear  in  the  following  table: 

THICK  AND  THIN  SEEDING  OF  ALFALFA. 


SEED  USED  PER  ACRE. 

No.  plants 
per  sq.  foot 
July  31,  1907. 

No.  plants 
per  sq.  foot 
May  2,  1908. 

Total  pounds  hay 
per  acre,  1908 
(3  cuttings}. 

13 

11 

7  862 

33 

27 

8  648 

15  pounds  

45 

34 

8  678 

56 

44 

8  557 

25  pounds  

70 

49 

7,876 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  maximum  yield  was  harvested  from 
the  plot  receiving  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre,  but  that  10  pounds 
of  seed  gave  within  30  pounds  of  as  large  a  yield  of  hay  per 
acre.  The  yield  from  20  pounds  of  seed  is  somewhat  lower  than 
from  10  and  15  pounds,  and  the  yield  from  25  pounds  decidedly 
lower,  exceeding  the  yield  from  5  pounds  by  an  insignificant 
amount. 

It  should  be  stated  that  5  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  proved  a 
little  light  in  so  far  as  holding  the  weeds  in  check  is  concerned. 
If  a  few  large  weeds  had  not  been  removed  from  this  plot  it 
would  have  presented  a  somewhat  ragged  appearance.  This 
being  done  the  quality  of  the  alfalfa  was  as  satisfactory  as  on 
any  plot. 

This  ground  was  in  ideal  condition  for  alfalfa  when  seeded, 
having  been  plowed  some  eight  weeks  previous  and  harrowed  at 
intervals  of  10  to  20  days  until  seeded.  Under  such  conditions 
10  to  15  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  would  seem  to  be  enough.  It  is 
to  be  doubted  whether  more  than  15  pounds  of  alfalfa  seed  per 
acre  is  needed  in  this  state  when  a  good  seed  bed  is  prepared, 
and  it  is  surely  cheaper  to  prepare  such  a  seed  bed  than  to  buy 
alfalfa  seed  to  waste  among  clods,  or  in  a  loose,  dried  out  soil. 

As  a  matter  of  experience  extending  over  many 
years  I  advise  the  use  of  15  to  20  pounds  of  seed 
for  ordinary  soils  and  under  ordinary  conditions. 


SEEDING   AND   CUTTING.  219 

While  it  is  true  that  this  gives  a  good  many  more 
plants  than  are  needed,  yet  these  will  crowd  each 
other  out  in  time  and  about  enough  will  survive  to 
make  an  ideal  stand.  An  extra  alfalfa  plant  is 
simply  a  weed  in  the  field,  but  it  is  the  best  weed 
that  can  be  selected,  and  it  undoubtedly  deters  the 
growth  of  other  weeds  to  a  greater  or  less  extent. 

Thick  Fall  Seeding  Wrong. — Men  have  sown  as 
much  as  40  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  in  the  fall. 
This  is  a  serious  error.  The  plants  standing  so  thick- 
ly, more  than  200  of  them  to  the  square  foot,  so 
crowd  each  other  that  they  can  not  grow  as  they 
ought,  and  so  no  root  gets  strong  as  it  should  before 
the  winter  sets  in.  The  result  is  that  the  frost  lifts 
and  destroys  a  large  percentage  of  them  all.  With 
half  the  seed  sown  and  stronger  plants  more  would 
have  been  alive  in  the  spring. 

Curiously  enough  the  better  the  land  is  adapted  to 
alfalfa  growing  the  fewer  plants  an  acre  of  it  will 
carry.  I  have  seen  wonderful  alfalfa  meadows  with 
no  more  than  40,000  or  50,000  plants  to  the  acre. 
Each  root,  however,  had  many  stools  and  stems, 
a  hundred  perhaps  or  more  from  the  one  root. 

Solving  the  Seed. — If  the  seed  is  sown  on  freshly 
harrowed  land  it  is  best.  The  seedbed  should  be 
firm,  well  worked  down,  yet  freshly  stirred.  Thus 
the  seed  stick  wherever  they  happen  to  strike  and  do 
not  roll  around  or  get  in  bunches.  The  manner  of 
distribution  is  not  very  essential.  Perhaps  the  most 
even  distribution  is  had  by  the  wheelbarrow  seeder. 
Any  of  the  commercial  seed  sowers  on  the  market 


220  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

will  do  good  work  in  capable  hands.  An  end  gate 
broadcast  seeder  that  may  be  attached  to  any  wagon 
will  do  good  work.  It  may  be  sown  by  hand  if  the 
operator  understands  seed  sowing,  or  it  may  be  sown 
with  a  drill,  letting  the  seed  fall  behind  or  in  front 
of  the  hoes,  according  to  circumstances  and  the  con- 
dition of  the  ground.  The  aim  is  ultimately  to  cover 
the  seed  an  inch  or  about  an  inch  deep.  The  harrow 
may  follow  the  sower  and  finish  the  covering.  Prob- 
ably for  this  purpose  the  common  slant-tooth 
smoothing  harrow  is  the  best  implement.  When  seed 
and  inoculating  soil  are  applied  together,  the  drill 
or  fertilizer  distributer  is  the  best  implement  to 
use. 

Drilling  in  the  Seed. — The  American  Seeding  Ma- 
chine Co.  has  developed  a  drill  that  will  sow  alfalfa 
seed  accurately  in  rows  6"  apart,  putting  it  in  at  any 
desired  depth.  I  have  seen  alfalfa  sown  with  one  of 
these  machines,  with  20  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre, 
that  was  at  least  10  times  too  thick.  It  is  evident  that 
with  a  perfect  seedbed  and  a  proper  alfalfa  drill  one 
need  sow  no  more  than  5  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre. 
This  means  a  fine  seedbed,  firm  underneath,  level  and 
smooth.  The  saving  of  seed  would  pay  for  all  the 
labor  of  preparing  the  seedbed  and  the  resultant 
thrift  of  the  alfalfa  would  be  very  fine  to  see.  This 
machine  will  drill  in  4  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre,  and 
to  a  required  depth. 

Alfalfa  with  Red  Clover  for  Inoculation. — When- 
ever it  is  suspected  that  alfalfa  may  be  adapted  to 
a  soil  and  red  clover  is  to  be  sown  there  in  the  reg- 


SEEDING  AND  CUTTING.  221 

ular  rotation,  alfalfa  should  be  mixed  with  the  clover 
seed.  If  10  per  cent  of  alfalfa  seed  is  used  it  will  be 
enough  to  give  a  good  sprinkling  of  alfalfa  plants 
and  later  a  thorough  inoculation  of  the  land.  How 
this  inoculation  comes  we  do  not  know.  Certain  it 
is  that  when  alfalfa  is  sown  on  suitable  soil,  dry  and 
with  lime  enough,  it  becomes  inoculated  in  a  year 
or  two  by  natural  means.  Thus  two  things  are  ac- 
complished: One  gets  a  good  general  idea  of  the 
suitability  of  the  soil  to  alfalfa  and  he  gets  it  in- 
oculated so  that  when  a  little  later  he  sows  alfalfa 
alone  it  assuredly  grows  strong  from  the  start. 

Furthermore,  the  mixture  of  red  clover  and 
alfalfa  is  a  good  mixture  anyway.  It  makes  more 
hay  and  more  pasture  than  red  clover  pure.  It  en- 
riches the  soil  more  efficiently.  Alfalfa  is  nearly  as 
easily  established  as  red  clover.  If  sown  with  oats 
or  if  the  wheat  is  harrowed  to  let  the  seed  be  covered 
it  is  certain  to  make  a  pretty  good  stand  mixed  in 
this  way. 

Red  Clover  with  Alfalfa. — On  the  other  hand, 
some  men  practice  sowing  red  clover  with  alfalfa. 
They  claim  that  with  the  addition  of  about  20  per 
cent  of  red  clover  seed  to  the  alfalfa  they  get  a  heav- 
ier yield  of  hay  the  first  year  following  the  seeding 
and  the  next  year  pure  alfalfa  results  which  outyields 
adjoining  fields  or  plots  that  have  had  no  red  clover 
in  them.  That  is,  the  decay  of  the  red  clover  roots, 
they  assert,  enriches  the  soil  for  the  alfalfa,  This 
is  said  of  some  soils  in  Pennsylvania.  In  my  own 
experience  this  is  not  a  very  good  practice,  since 


222  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

it  leaves  the  alfalfa  a  little  thin  on  the  ground  after 
the  clover  has  died  out,  but  I  have  not  tried  it  more 
than  once  or  twice. 

Alsike  Clover  and  Alfalfa. — These  sow  well  to- 
gether and  make  wonderful  forage  either  for  soiling, 
feeding  off  for  pasturage  or  for  hay.  It  is  best,  of 
course,  to  call  it  an  alsike  field  and  treat  it  as  though 
no  alfalfa  were  sown  in  it,  since  the  alfalfa  is  much 
more  permanent  than  the  alsike.  Alsike,  however,  is 
in  some  soils  more  permanent  than  red  clover  and 
will  sometimes  last  as  long  as  four  or  five  years.  It 
does  not  cut  more  than  one,  or  at  most  two,  crops  of 
hay  in  a  year.  Some  of  the  loveliest  pasturage  the 
writer  has  ever  seen  has  been  a  mixture  of  alsike 
clover,  alfalfa  and  smooth  brome  grass. 


INOCULATION  AND  NITROGEN. 

Many  once  deep,  dark  mysteries  are  now  cleared 
up  so  that  we  smile  at  what  once  made  men  despair. 
Alfalfa  growing  was  once  as  deep  a  mystery  as  any 
one  could  name.  Sown  in  Colorado,  Utah  or  Cali- 
fornia alfalfa  thrived  from  the  start  almost.  Sown 
in  Ohio,  Illinois,  Kentucky  or  New  York  it  often 
failed.  When  it  lived  it  was  for  some  months  or  a 
year  or  more  a  feeble,  unhappy,  sickly  plant.  After  a 
time  perhaps  it  recovered  and  made  wonderful 
growth. 

Why  This  Difference? — Why  should  it  behave  so 
differently  in  different  regions?  Of  course  there 
are  several  answers  to  this  query.  One  is  that  some 
soils  are  filled  with  lime  and  phosphorus,  are  dry 
and  filled  with  air.  Alfalfa  loves  such  soils.  But 
the  other  and  more  hidden  and  mysterious  reason 
is  that  of  the  nitrifying  bacteria  that  help  alfalfa 
grow.  These  bacteria  are  naturally  present  in  some 
soils.  They  live  on  more  species  of  legumes  than 
alfalfa  alone.  Burr  clover  (Medicago  arabica  or 
Medicago  denticulata)  carries  the  same  inoculation, 
uses  the  same  bacteria.  So  does  sweet  clover  or 
melilotus.  Doubtless  there  are  other  wild  legumes 
growing  in  western  arid  soils  that  use  the  same  bac- 
teria. On  the  other  hand,  in  eastern  soils  these  bac- 
teria were  absent  almost  altogether. 

One  of  the  best  illustrations  of  the  lack  of  inoculat- 


224  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

ing  bacteria  was  seen  in  Christian  County,  Kentucky. 
A  field  of  good  limestone  soil  was  well  enriched 
and  sown  to  alfalfa  in  the  fall.  A  fine  stand  re- 
sulted and  I  visited  it  the  next  spring,  some  time 
early  in  May.  The  alfalfa  was  short,  stunted,  of  yel- 
low color,  clearly  destined  to  be  a  failure.  Careful 
search  revealed  no  nodules  on  the  roots.  One  bunch 
of  thrifty  alfalfa  was  in  the  middle  of  the  field, 
another  at  one  edge,  near  where  had  stood  a  negro's 
cabin.  I  dug  up  these  plants  and  found  abundant 
inoculation,  the  nodules  being  plentiful.  I  dug  out 
the  soil  around  these  spots  and  threw  it  over  the 
field.  Eains  distributed  the  bacteria  still  further, 
so  that  in  a  year  the  whole  field  was  inoculated  and 
yielded  a  heavy  crop  of  hay,  about  six  tons  to  the 
acre.  The  land  had  been  well  limed. 

Vital  Relation  of  Bacteria. — What  is  the  vital  re- 
lation between  bacteria  and  alfalfa?  I  make  no 
pretense  to  exact  scientific  knowledge  on  this  ques- 
tion. As  near  as  I  understand  it  the  case  is  about 
as  follows :  Alfalfa  is  a  legume.  All  or  nearly  all 
leguminous  plants  are  aided  in  their  growth  by  bac- 
teria that  associate  themselves  with  the  plants,  living 
on  the  roots  or  on  the  rootlets.  With  plants  using 
these  bacteria  existence  without  them  is  precarious 
and  often  impossible. 

Securing  Nitrogen. — The  problem  of  fertility,  of 
production  of  plants,  of  crop  yield  is  a  curious  one. 
Some  elements  going  to  make  up  plants  are  mineral; 
these  we  find  in  the  ash  of  plants.  A  large  part  is 
water;  this  comes  easily  enough  from  the  soil.  A 


INOCULATION   AND   NITROGEN.  225 

large  part  is  carbon;  carbon  is  taken  from  the  air 
by  the  leaves  of  the  plant.  There  is  plenty  of  car- 
bon always  for  plant  growth.  There  is  usually 
plenty  of  water.  Mineral  elements — potash,  phos- 
phorus, lime,  iron  and  so  on — are  easily  enough 
added  to  the  soil.  The  sole  remaining  element  is 
nitrogen.  Nitrogen  is  one  of  the  essential  elements 
in  the  proteins  of  food,  the  albumens.  Nitrogen  is 
essential  to  nearly  all  life,  animal  and  plant.  All  the 
higher  animals  need  much  nitrogen  in  their  foods. 
All  the  grains  have  in  them  much  nitrogen.  Nearly 
all  crops  taken  away  from  the  soil  remove  a  great 
deal  of  nitrogen.  Soil  waters  leach  it  away.  Since 
the  beginning  of  the  world  everything  has  preyed 
upon  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil.  The  rocks  in  the  be- 
ginning held  little  or  none  of  it.  Whence  did  the 
soils  then  obtain  their  nitrogen  supply? 

Two  Classes  of  Plants. — There  are  two  classes, 
very  broadly  speaking,  of  plants  in  the  world,  the 
nitrogen  gatherers  and  the  nitrogen  users.  Corn, 
wheat,  the  grasses,  potatoes,  flax,  oats,  nearly  all 
farm  crops  use  nitrogen  and  can  not  get  it  except 
as  it  is  already  stored  for  them  in  the  soil.  That 
at  least  is  as  far  as  we  know  now.  At  any  rate 
soils  grow  poor  in  nitrogen  when  crops  of  corn, 
wheat,  hay  or  almost  any  crop  except  clover  or  some 
other  legume  is  grown  upon  it.  Certain  crops  are 
soil  builders.  Certain  other  crops  are  soil  robbers. 
The  legumes  are  the  soil  builders.  They  get  nitrogen 
in  some  way.  How  do  they  do  this? 

Abundant  Nitrogen  in   Air. — Nitrogen   exists   in 


226  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

enormous  amounts  in  the  air.  Nearly  80%  of  the 
air  is  pure  nitrogen.  Why  can  not  the  leaves  take 
it  directly  in  as  they  do  their  carbon  from  the  air? 
That  we  do  not  know,  but  they  can  not  do  it.  Plants 
will  starve  and  perish  for  nitrogen  with  their  leaves 
bathed  in  that  substance,  with  their  roots  surround- 
ed with  it  as  well,  for  in  all  porous  soils  there  is 
much  air. 

About  Bacteria. — Bacteria  do  the  work.  Bacteria 
are  very  minute  plants,  sometimes  almost  like  ani- 
mals in  having  some  power  of  motion.  Yeast  is  a 
bacteria.  They  are  intensely  minute.  It  would  take 
5,200  of  them,  placed  in  a  row,  to  be  an  inch  long. 
Twenty-seven  million  could  be  on  a  square  inch  of 
space.  A  farmer  can  not  ever  hope  to  see  one ;  it 
takes  a  powerful  microscope  to  show  one,  yet  any 
farmer  can  see  the  work  they  do. 

It  is  thought  that  there  is  really  only  one  sort  of 
bacteria  for  all  the  clovers,  but  that  habit  has  divided 
them  into  varieties,  similar  yet  unable  to  live  on  the 
same  plants.  Thus  there  are  the  red  clover  bacteria, 
the  cowpea  bacteria,  the  alfalfa  bacteria,  and  many 
more.  Some  bacteria  live  on  several  different  plants, 
just  as  the  alfalfa  bacteria  thrive  on  melilotus,  al- 
falfa and  burr  clover. 

These  bacteria  when  they  touch  a  tiny  rootlet  of 
alfalfa  have  power  to  enter  it  and  abide  there.  They 
increase  there  and  swarm  in  incredible  numbers. 
They  are  really  parasites  upon  the  plant,  most  like- 
ly. The  plant  attacked  puts  out  a  protective  cover- 
ing, thus  forming  a  swelling  nodule  on  the  little 


INOCULATION   AND   NITROGEN.  227 

rootlet.  This  nodule  is  filled  with  these  bacteria. 
Nodules  are  not  all  alike ;  some  look  like  little  seeds, 
some  like  bunches  of  grapes.  They  vary  in  size  and 
shape  very  much.  Nodules  on  alfalfa  plants  are 
rather  smaller  usually  than  alfalfa  seeds.  They 
exist  only  on  the  root  hairs.  Evidently  these  bac- 
teria prefer  the  new  fresh  roots. 

The  Work  of  Bacteria. — What  do  the  bacteria  do 
for  the  plant!  In  some  way  they  digest  nitrogen 
and  assimilate  it.  In  some  way  the  plant  gets  it. 
How?  We  do  not  know  that.  Maybe  they  die  and 
decay  and  the  plant  absorbs  them.  Maybe  the  plant 
assimilates  part  of  them  before  they  get  old  enough 
to  die.  Anyway  we  know  that  they  get  hold  of  the 
nitrogen  that  exists  in  the  air  and  that  comes  down 
into  the  soil  through  its  pores,  get  hold  of  it,  use  it 
and  give  it  to  the  plants.  That  is  the  miracle  that 
lets  life  exist  on  this  world  of  ours.  A  happy  chance ! 
Yes,  or  a  thought  of  God.  It  is  certain  that  were  it 
not  for  this  "chance,"  human  life,  and  animal  life  as 
well,  would  ultimately  perish  from  the  face  of  the 
earth.  On  such  tiny  beings  as  these  bacteria  does  all 
life  on  the  world  hang  for  its  ultimate  existence. 
Thoughtful  men  have  long  felt  alarm  over  the  state 
of  the  world  as  far  as  the  food  supply  of  the  people 
was  concerned,  all  because  of  this  very  drain  of  nitro- 
gen from  the  soils  by  crop  growing.  Dr.  Cyril  Gr. 
Hopkins  says: 

But  a  short  time  ago  Sir  William  Crookes  predicted  that 
within  thirty  or  forty  years  England  would  experience  a  wheat 
famine,  due  to  the  exhaustion  of  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  that  would 
be  appalling  in  its  effect;  and  Prof.  Bela  Korasey's  warnings  to 


228  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

Hungary  have  been  even  more  emphatic.  Indeed,  Liebig,  more 
than  fifty  years  ago,  in  speaking  of  one  of  the  most  common 
methods  of  destroying  sources  of  available  nitrogen,  said: 

"Nothing  will  more  certainly  consummate  the  ruin  of  Eng- 
land than  the  scarcity  of  fertilizers.  It  means  the  scarcity  of 
food.  It  is  impossible  that  such  a  sinful  violation  of  the  divine 
laws  of  nature  should  forever  remain  unpunished,  and  the  time 
will  probably  come  for  England,  sooner  than  for  any  other  coun- 
try, when,  with  all  her  wealth  in  gold,  iron,  and  coal,  she  will  be 
unable  to  buy  one-thousandth  part  of  the  food  which  she  has 
during  hundreds  of  years  thrown  recklessly  away." 

To  produce  good  crops  of  alfalfa  without  the  nitrogen  gather- 
ing bacteria  requires  exceedingly  rich  soil  and  liberal  applica- 
tions of  barnyard  manure  or  other  nitrogenous  fertilizer.  Even 
the  rich  black  prairie  soil  of  Illinois  does  not  furnish  sufficient 
available  nitrogen  for  maximum  crops  of  alfalfa.  No  other  crop 
grown  in  Illinois  requires  such  large  quantities  of  nitrogen  as 
alfalfa. 

Applications  of  available  nitrogen  to  Illinois  soil  produce 
crops  of  alfalfa  which  yield  from  two  to  four  times  as  much  hay 
as  crops  which  obtain  all  of  their  nitrogen  from  the  natural 
supply  of  the  soil.  The  inoculation  of  Illinois  soil  with  the 
proper  alfalfa  bacteria  enables  the  alfalfa  to  feed  upon  the  in- 
exhaustible supply  of  free  nitrogen  in  the  air  and  the  inoculated 
soil  produces  just  as  large  crops  of  alfalfa  as  soil  which  has  been 
heavily  fertilized  with  commercial  nitrogen.  Nitrogen  costs 
about  15  cents  a  pound  in  commercial  fertilizers,  and  about  50 
pounds  of  nitrogen  are  required  to  produce  one  ton  of  alfalfa 
hay  and  the  weight  of  the  free  nitrogen  in  the  atmosphere  is 
equal  to  about  12  pounds  to  each  square  inch  of  surface  of  the 
earth. 

In  Summary. — Nitrogen  i's  constantly  being 
drained  out  of  the  soil  by  growing  crops.  Wheat, 
maize,  oats,  hay,  nearly  all  farm  crops  take  out  nitro- 
gen. It  is  gathered  together  in  the  grains;  a  grain 
elevator  represents  the  fertility  of  many  a  field.  It 
goes  to  the  cities ;  it  becomes  the  food  of  man.  Ow- 
ing to  our  wasteful  practice,  hard  to  reform  in  mod- 
ern civilization,  the  nitrogen  waste  is  poured  into 
the  sea.  Soon  would  the  soils  of  the  world  become 


INOCULATION   AND   NITROGEN.  229 

barren  and  mankind  starve  and  perish  if  the  Cre- 
ative force  of  the  world  had  not  provided  this  means 
of  renewing  the  nitrogen  of  the  soil.  The  tiny  bac- 
teria do  it.  All  clovers  gather  nitrogen  from  the  air. 
Alfalfa  gathers  more  than  any  other  known  clover 
unless  perhaps  the  sweet  clover  be  an  exception.  Al- 
falfa powerfully  enriches  the  soil  on  which  it  grows. 
Bacteria  make  it"  possible  to  grow  alfalfa.  It  will 
not  grow  long  without  the  bacteria. 

How  to  Get  Bacteria. — How  are  we  to  get  them, 
how  make  them  most  healthful  and  vigorous?  Many 
schemes  have  been  tried  for  getting  the  bacteria  in 
the  soil.  They  can  be  reared  artificially  in  cultures, 
and  the  seed  treated  with  the  culture,  when  each 
seed  ought  to  be  coated  with  a  film  of  these  bacteria. 
Each  seed  sown  o-ught  to  produce  a  plant  abundantly 
inoculated.  These  are  the  so-called  commercial  cul- 
tures. The  theory  is  good.  Unluckily  some  influence 
that  we  do  not  understand,  maybe  the  action  of  di- 
rect light,  usually  destroys  the  vitality  of  the  germs 
and  the  cultures  do  not  work.  There  is  hardly  any 
evidence  that  these  cultures  are  successful.  It  is 
too  bad  that  it  should  be  true:  the  theory  is  so 
plausible,  the  results,  could  they  be  secured,  would 
be  so  delightful.  I  believe  the  thing  could  yet  be 
brought  to  work,  only  that  with  the  advance  of 
good  farming  it  will  not  be  long  till  the  demand  for 
such  cultures  will  cease,  at  least  as  far  as  alfalfa  is 
concerned.  Curiously  enough  these  bacteria  are 
very  pervasive.  Once  a  man  begins  to  grow  alfalfa 
on  his  farm  and  to  use  manure  from  alfalfa  hay, 


230  ALFALFA    FLEMING   IN  AMERICA. 

very  soon  he  has  the  land  all  inoculated  so  that  he 
can  not  sow  a  field  anywhere  that  the  bacteria  do 
not  find  the  young  plants.  And  when  once  alfalfa 
has  grown  on  a  field  the  inoculation  persists  for 
several  years  after  it  is  plowed  up.  We  do  not 
understand  these  things  yet.  Maybe  we  never  will. 
It  is  mysterious  that  even  the  use  of  manure  not 
made  from  alfalfa  hay,  'on  a  farm  where  alfalfa  has 
never  grown,  should  often  result  in  inoculating  the 
soil  with  alfalfa  bacteria.  There  is  no  doubt  of  this 
fact.  I  have  seen  it  repeatedly. 

Inoculation  with  Soil. — Soil  from  a  field  where  al- 
falfa has  grown,  or  sweet  clover  (melilotus)  has 
grown,  or  burr  clover  has  grown,  distributed  over 
the  new  alfalfa  field,  is  a  safe  and  sure  inoculation. 
Some  suggest  the  danger  of  infecting  the  new  field 
with  weeds  or  with  diseases  by  this  practice.  That 
danger  is  remote.  One  hundred  pounds  of  soil  will 
inoculate  an  acre  quite  well  if  it  has  good  distribu- 
tion. That  much  soil  is  taken  from  a  small  place 
of  only  a  few  square  feet.  It  would  contain  few 
seeds.  A  few  sweet  clover  seeds  in  the  soil  do  no 
harm  to  the  alfalfa  anyway.  No  other  weeds  are 
likely  to  be  found  where  good  clover  or  alfalfa  is 
growing. 

Method  of  Using  Soil. — How  to  best  manage  this 
soil  inoculation!  Take  the  soil  from  the  surface 
down  as  deep  as  the  land  is  well  filled  with  roots. 
Dig  it  and  carry  it  home  and  put  it  on  the  barn 
floor.  Spread  it,  not  too  thin,  and  work  it  over 
from  time  to  time  to  help  it  dry  and  make  it  fine 


INOCULATION   AND   NITROGEN.  231 

for  sowing.  Do  not  let  thj^&un  strike  it  even  for 
a  moment;  sunlight  destrd^J^ese  bacteria.  When 
you  have  it  fine  enough  for  sowing  you'  can  either 
mix  it  with  the  seed  and  sow  both  together,  say  100 
pounds  of  soil  and  15  or  20  pounds  of  seed,  sowing 
them  on  an  acre,  or  you  can  sow  the  seed  and  soil 
separately.  If  you  have  only  a  small  field  or  plot  to 
sow,  do  it  late  in  the  day  after  the  sun  has  ceased 
to  shine,  and  then  harrow  it  at  once.  If  you  must 
spread  it  while  the  sun  is  shining  let  the  harrow 
follow  immediately  behind  the  soil  sower. 

One  can  put  the  soil  in  a  fertilizer  drill  and  drill 
it  into  the  land.  That  is  an  excellent  way.  Anyway 
will  do  so  that  the  inoculating  soil  is  not  exposed  to 
sunlight,  but  is  covered  up  in  the  ground. 

Coating  Seed  ivith  Earth. — The  Illinois  experi- 
ment station  has  developed  a  very  successful  way  of 
inoculating  alfalfa  seed,  requiring  comparatively 
little  soil  for  its  complete  success.  Water  is  heated 
and  enough  glue  dissolved  in  it  to  make  the  water  a 
trifle  sticky.  It  is  then  cooled  and  the  seed  is  well 
wetted  with  this  water.  E  arth  taken  from  a  good  al- 
falfa field  or  sweet  clover  patch  is  made  fine  and  run 
through  a  sieve  to  take  out  lumps,  roots  and  stones. 
It  is  better  if  the  earth  is  dry,  but  it  ought  to  be  dried 
in  a  dark  place,  at  least  not  exposed  to  sunlight.  The 
earth  and  seed  are  mixed  together  till  each  seed  is 
coated  with  a  film  of  this  dry  and  inoculated  earth. 
No  surplus  earth  need  be  used,  so  each  seed  is  coated. 
The  seed  is  immediately  sown  and  covered  as  fast  as 
sown  in  some  manner.  Perfect  inoculation  seems  to 


232  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

result.  Some  farmers  who  have  adopted  this  plan 
maintain  that  it  is  not  even  necessary  to  add  glue  to 
the  water,  though  that  would  doubtless  make  it  some- 
what more  effective. 

Conditions  Favorable  to  Bacteria. — Now  to  make 
those  bacteria  most  healthful,  most  active,  consider 
their  tastes.  Acids  in  the  soil  promptly  kill  them 
off.  Much  lime  in  the  soil  makes  them  very  vig- 
orous and  active.  So  make  the  soil  sweet  with  lime, 
alkaline  with  lime,  not  sour.  And  they  feed  on  air. 
So  let  the  water  out  of  the  land  and  the  air  into  it. 
Drain  and  subsoil  or  plow  deep.  Then  the  soil  is 
ready  to  work  miracles  for  you.  Then  one  sees  com- 
ing from  the  land  rich  crops  of  alfalfa,  many  times 
as  much  nitrogen  as  was  originally  in  the  soil,  feed- 
ing his  animals,  feeding  the  soil  if  the  manure  is 
put  back. 

Inoculation  in  Advance. — If  one  plans  to  sow  al- 
falfa in  a  year  or  two  he  should  begin  by  getting  a 
source  of  inoculating  soil  on  his  own  farm.  Let 
him  prepare  a  narrow  strip  of  land  across  a  field, 
lime  it,  drain  it,  enrich  it,  inoculate  it  and  sow  it 
to  alfalfa.  Do  not  say,  "I  will  experiment  here 
with  alfalfa."  Alfalfa  is  no  experiment  any  longer. 
It  is  sure  to  grow  on  sweet  dry  rich  soil  with  in- 
oculation. There  is  no  chance  of  failure.  But  on 
this  strip  you  will  get  indication  of  the  readiness  of 
your  field  for  alfalfa.  If  it  grows  there  vigorously 
all  along,  and  stands  the  winter  quite  well,  you 
know  that  your  soil  is  dry  enough,  sweet  enough  and 
rich  enough  for  alfalfa.  And  from  this  land  you 


INOCULATION  AND   NITROGEN.  233 

will  get  inoculating  earth  for  all  the  rest  of  the 
farm.  It  may  perhaps  be  necessary  to  ship  in 
enough,  for  the  first  strip,  though  it  is  today  a  rare 
neighborhood  that  does  not  have  in  it  either  some 
sort  of  an  alfalfa  field  with  inoculated  plants  or  a 
sweet  clover  patch.  Once  you  have  the  strip  of  in- 
oculation on  your  farm  you  are  independent;  you 
can  go  on  and  enlarge  as  fast  as  you  please.  An 
acre  of  inoculated  alfalfa  would  give  soil  enough  for 
inoculating  at  least  an  entire  county. 

Searching  for  Inoculation. — It  is  astonishing  how 
few  farmers  have  ever  seen  a  nodule  on  a  clover 
root.  They  are  easily  found,  especially  on  some 
sorts  of  clovers.  One  can  pull  up  almost  any  thrifty 
red  clover  root  and  find  nodules  in  place,  looking 
like  little  white  seeds.  On  the  red  clover  they  are 
found  on  the  larger  roots,  as  well  as  on  the  finer 
root  hairs.  The  little  creeping  white  clover  has 
nodules  in  plenty  and  they  are  easily  found.  Alfalfa 
has  nodules  only  on  the  smaller  finer  root  hairs. 
Thus  they  are  not  to  be  seen  when  one  pulls  vio- 
lently a  plant  from  the  soil,  especially  if  the  earth 
is  hard  and  clayey.  The  little  nodules  remain  in 
the  earth.  They  are  very  easily  dislodged  from  their 
hold  on  the  roots.  One  must  take  the  roots  out  with 
some  care  and  perhaps  will  need  to  wash  the  earth 
away  to  find  the  nodules  the  first  time.  After  he 
has  seen  them  once  and  knows  what  to  look  for  he 
will  find  them  more  easily  the  next  time. 

Appearance  Reveals  Inoculation. — After  one 
knows  alfalfa  well  he  can  tell  at  a  glance  whether 


234  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

a  field  or  plant  is  inoculated.  If  it  is  of  a  rich 
green  color,  if  it  is  growing  fast,  if  it  looks  healthy 
and  happy,  be  pretty  sure  that  it  is  inoculated, 
whether  you  did  it  or  Nature  did  it.  If,  on  the  other 
hand,  it  looks  pale  and  yellow  and  unhappy  and  is 
crowded  by  weeds  and  altogether  miserable,  be  sure 
that  it  is  not  inoculated. 

Inoculated  Soil  a  Fertiliser  Laboratory. — Consider 
what  is  doing  in  an  inoculated  soil  where  conditions 
are  right  and  alfalfa  is  growing  thereon.  Take  the 
yearly  growth  at  only  4  tons  per  acre.  Four  tons 
of  alfalfa  hay  contain  about  176  pounds  of  nitro- 
gen, 40  pounds  of  phosphorus  and  128  pounds  of 
potash.  Nitrogen  is  sold  for  about  15  cents  per 
pound  in  various  forms,  often  for  a  much  higher 
price.  Phosphorus  is  sold  at  a  low  price  for  5  cents 
per  pound.  Potash  is  worth  about  the  same  price. 
Thus  in  the  crop  of  4  tons  of  hay  we  find  nitrogen 
largely  gathered  by  the  bacteria  worth  $26.40, 
potash  worth  $6.40,  phosphoric  acid  worth  $2 — all 
these  from  one  acre  yielding  only  4  tons  of  alfalfa 
hay.  The  total  is  $34.80.  The  manurial  value  of 
this  yield  is  vastly  more  than  this  amount,  since  the 
humus  contained  is  worth  more  to  the  soil  than  one 
can  well  estimate.  And  the  value  to  the  soil  is  nearly 
double  this  estimate  since  we  take  no  account  of  the 
root  growth,  also  stored  with  nitrogen.  Prof.  Voor- 
hees  estimates  the  fertilizing  value  of  an  acre  of  al- 
falfa well  grown  to  be  about  $65,  in  comparison  of 
course  with  commercial  fertilizers  bought. 

Soil  Building  with  Alfalfa.^QnQ  must  not  rashly 


INOCULATION   AND   NITROGEN.  235 

conclude,  however,  that  alfalfa  used  in  any  way  is 
a  soil  builder.  There  is  reason  to  suspect  that  al- 
falfa is  one  of  the  mo>st  energetic  searchers  after 
potash  and  phosphoric  acid  known  to  the  soil.  The 
roots  go  deeper,  penetrate  more,  dissolve  more  than 
those  of  most  plants. 

Thus  if  the  alfalfa  is  all  sold  off  from  the  farm 
it  may  become  steadily  poorer  and  poorer.  It  is 
certain  that  it  would  be  poorer  in  mineral  elements. 
There  have  been  instances  under  the  writer's  ob- 
servation where  the  land  'has  grown  alfalfa  continu- 
ously for  some  years  and  nothing  returned,  where 
after  a  time  it  would  not  grow  alfalfa  any  longer, 
nor  anything  else  very  well.  Exhaustion  of  avail- 
able phosphorus  would  seem  to  be  the  most  rea- 
sonable explanation  of  this  phenomenon.  In  some 
instances  where  alfalfa  has  grown  well  for  some 
years  and  then  failed  it  has  been  impossible  to  re- 
establish it  on  the  same  land.  This  has  occurred 
where  hay  'has  been  sold  off  and  nothing  returned 
to  the  soil. 

Alfalfa  is  a  vigorous  soil  enricher,  provided  the 
forage  is  fed  on  the  farm  and  the  manure  religiously 
returned  to  the  land,  not  necessarily  to  the  very  field 
where  the  alfalfa  grew,  but  to  some  adjoining  field. 
Thus  the  one  field  builds  another,  the  two>  may  be 
set  in  alfalfa  after  a  time  and  they  will  build  a  third 
and  in  this  way  through  the  magic  of  alfalfa  roots 
a  whole  farm  may  be  redeemed  from  the  scourge  of 
poverty  and  barrenness.  Thus  may  vast  stores  of 
nitrogen  be  gathered.  One  may  need  to  buy  p'hos- 


236  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

phorus,  possibly  potash,  often  lime,  but  nitrogen, 
that  most  costly  and  most  vital  of  all  soil  ingredi- 
ents, he  is  getting  every  day  in  immense  amounts  by 
the  magic  of  alfalfa  roots  and  their  tiny  allies  the 
alfalfa  bacteria. 


ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION. 

With  some  men  alfalfa  is  the  best  money  crop 
that  can  be  grown.  Naturally  these  men  desire  to 
keep  their  land  continuously  in  alfalfa.  They  prac- 
tice something  like  the  following  system :  After  the 
last  crop  of  hay  is  cut  in  the  fall  the  alfalfa  stubble 
is  plowed  deeply  and  fitted  and  sown  back  to  alfalfa 
in  the  spring.  Or  the  alfalfa  is  mown  off  in  May 
or  early  June,  again  in  July,  and  is  at  once  broken 
and  sown  to  alfalfa  in  late  July  or  early  August.  In 
some  parts  of  Maryland  alfalfa  winters  well  the  first 
year  but  kills  the  second  winter.  Thus  they  sow  it 
each  year  and  declare  that  no  crop  pays  so  well  as 
forage  for  dairy  cows. 

There  may  doubtless  be  instances  where  this  is 
good  practice  for  a  time.  It  is  true,  nevertheless, 
that  soils  are  better  off  to  have  a  change  of  crops 
now  and  then,  and  crops  are  certainly  better  for 
fresh  soils.  While  alfalfa  is  a  soil  enricher  in  the 
sense  of  adding  stores  of  nitrogen  it  is  a  soil  deplet- 
er  so  far  as  phosphorus  and  potash  and  lime  go. 
More  than  that,  there  are  hidden  influences  that  we 
do  not  understand  that  make  soils  unfriendly  to 
plants  that  have  grown  in  them  too  long.  It  is  not- 
able that  some  of  the  very  oldest  books  on  agricul- 
ture in  referring  to  alfalfa  say:  "It  endures  for 
many  years  and  afterward  may  be  plowed  up  and 
the  land  sown  to  corn.  Land  should  not  be  sown 


238  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

again  to  lucerne  (alfalfa)  till  it  has  rested  for  some 
seasons."  It  is  safe  to  assume  that  the  ancients 
had  seen  signs  that  alfalfa  best  liked  fresh  land. 

Alfalfa  culture  is  too  new  in  America  for  us  to 
know  much  about  this  question.  It  is  the  practice 
on  Woodland  Farm  to  grow  alfalfa  for  four  years 
on  a  field,  sometimes  for  a  longer  time,  then  to  plow 
and  plant  twice  to  corn  (maize),  after  which  the  land 
is  sown  again  to  alfalfa.  Some  of  our  fields  have 
had  alfalfa  on  them  for  about  12  years  all  told.  We 
do  not  think  that  w<e  see  any  signs  yet  of  deteriora- 
tion. In  some  instances  we  see  that  the  alfalfa  is 
much  more  vigorous  than  it  ever  was.  We  feed  the 
soil,  however,  with  phosphorus  when  growing  alfalfa 
and  with  manure  when  growing  corn.  It  is  doubtless 
better  to  let  a  crop  of  some  cereal  or  roots  intervene 
between  the  crops  of  alfalfa  and  if  two  years  inter- 
vene it  may  be  wiser ;  we  do  not  know. 

There  are  yet  no  serious  diseases  of  alfalfa  preva- 
lent. On  soils  well  stored  with  carbonate  of  lime 
alfalfa  seems  so  vigorous  and  healthy  that  it  resists 
disease  most  markedly.  Yet  there  are  illusive  and 
hard  to  determine  causes  that  make  soils  sicken  of 
plants  of  one  order  and  produce  more  vigorously 
of  plants  of  a  different  order  in  rotation. 

Alfalfa  in  the  Rotation. — It  is  often  objected  that 
alfalfa  does  not  fit  well  into  a  rotation,  that  it  is  too 
long  in  getting  established,  too  feeble  an  infant,  and 
demands  too  long  a  use  of  the  land. 

On  land  well  suited  to  alfalfa  growing  it  establishes 
itself  as  soon  as  does  red  clover.  The  following 


ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION.          239 

year  after  being  sown  it  will  make  a  half  more  hay 
than  will  red  clover  and  the  hay.  is  -of  better  quality. 
It  may  then  be  plowed  under  as  red  clover  would  be, 
or  it  may  continue  another  year  with  more  profit, 
while  red  clover  can  not,  since  that  plant  is  almost 
biennial  in  its  nature.  So  it  is  certainly  not  true 
that  alfalfa  can  not  fit  into  a  rotation,  no  matter  how 
short  it  is. 

Even  as  a  catch  crop  in  corn  I  found  when  I 
mixed  red  clover,  alfalfa  and  crimson  clover  to- 
gether and  sowed  at  last  cultivation  that  I  got  more 
plants  through  the  winter  of  alfalfa  than  of  either 
of  the  other  clovers.  Doubtless  on  good  lands,  filled 
with  lime,  alfalfa  as  a  manuring  crop  to  be  sown  in 
corn  would  be  more  profitable  than  almost  anything 
that  could  be  sown.  The  difficulty  in  the  way  of 
this  use  is  that  usually  the  seed  is  too  dear  and  when 
one  gets  a  stand  of  alfalfa  he  sees  too  much  profit 
in  leaving  it  to  let  him  desire  to  plow  it  under. 

How  Long  Should  Alfalfa  Stand? — This  is  very 
much  a  local  question.  We  have  instances  of  alfalfa 
fields  10,  20  even  40  years  old  that  have  never  been 
re-seeded.  I  have  walked  over  fields  that  were  said 
to  be  40  years  old  and  they  were  yet  in  vigorous  pro- 
duction. This  was  in  Texas,  near  San  Antonio. 
This  book  is  not  written  for  men  who  can  grow  al- 
falfa in  that  way;  they  need  no  books  save  pocket- 
books.  The  fact  that  alfalfa  is  such  a  long-lived 
plant  in  dry  regions  with  well  drained  soils  and  dry, 
warm  winters  has  worked  to  mislead  men  living  far- 
ther east  or  north.  If  they  could  forget  that  alfalfa 


240  ALFAL.FA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

in  some  countries  lives  ten  or  a  dozen  years  or  more 
the  men  of  Iowa,  Illinois,  Ohio  or  New  York  would 
be  better  off.  The  simple  truth  is  that  after  the  first 
year  alfalfa  is  in  its  prime.  It  may  yield  as  much 
the  third  year  or  may  not.  It  will  often  begin  to  de- 
cline somewhat  on  the  fourth  year  and  may  be  not- 
ably less  productive  on  the  fifth  year.  By  the  sixth 
year  the  owner  begins  to  wonder  whether,  after  all, 
alfalfa  is  as  valuable  a  crop  as  he  had  supposed  and 
his  neighbors  begin  to  say  "I  told  you  so!" 

Now  'had  this  man  turned  under  his  alfalfa  after 
it  had  given  him  3  or  4  years  of  cuttings  he  would 
have  had  some  twinges  of  conscience  and  pangs  of 
remorse  at  what  he  was  doing,  and  his  neighbors 
would  have  called  him  a  fool  for  i  l  killing  the  golden 
goose, ' '  but  he  would  have  in  the  long  run  made  more 
money  and  alfalfa  would  never  have  gone  into  dis- 
repute. 

Suggested  Rotations. — In  Ohio,  Indiana  and  Illi- 
nois maize  (corn)  is  king.  Nothing  else  pays  so 
well  as  corn  and  alfalfa,  with  animals  to  eat  the  stuff 
they  pile  up.  Hence  the  most  profitable  rotation 
here  will  likely  be,  corn  two  years,  alfalfa  with  bar- 
ley one  year,  alfalfa  alone  three  or  four  years,  ac- 
cording to  soil,  then  corn  again,  two  years,  and  thus 
on  around  in  regular  rotation. 

Rotation  for  a  300  Acre  Farm. — Corn  two  years, 
barley  and  alfalfa  one  year,  alfalfa  three  years, 
means  a  6-year  rotation.  Let  us  see  what  one  would 
get  in  that  rotation  each  year.  Say  the  fields  are  of 
40  acres  each ;  then  he  has  80  acres  in  corn  on  alfalfa 


ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION.          241 

sod,  after  the  rotation  is  once  under  way.  This  corn 
ought  to  yield  at  least  85  bushels  per  acre,  and  may 
yield  more  than  100  bushels.  One  field  will  be  on 
alfalfa  sod  simply,  the  other  field  will  be  corn  stubble 
heavily  manured.  Thus  there  will  be  about  7,000 
bushels  of  corn,  shelled  measure.  The  next  field  will 
be  a  40-acre  field  sown  down  to  alfalfa  with  barley, 
either  fall-sown  alfalfa  on  barley  stubble  or  spring- 
sown  alfalfa  with  barley  as  a,  nurse  crop.  In  the  one 
case  there  will  be  about  1,000  bushels  of  barley  grain, 
maybe  more,  and  no  hay  from  'this  40.  Then  there 
will  remain  three  fields  of  40  acres  each  in  estab- 
lished alfalfa,  one  of  them  sown  last  year,  one  the 
year  before,  one  the  year  before  that.  These  fields 
will  yield  about  4  tons  of  hay  per  acre,  maybe  more, 
or  say  450  to  500  tons  of  hay. 

We  have  left  about  60  acres  for  permanent  pas- 
ture, orchard,  barn  lots,  woodland  and  so  on.  Now 
let  us  sum  up  what  we  have  as  a  yield  from  the 
300  acre  farm:  corn,  7,000  bushels;  barley,  1,000 
bushels,  or  else,  barley  hay,  with  some  alfalfa  in  it, 
50  to  75  tons ;  alfalfa  hay,  450  to  500  tons.  Pasture 
left  60  acres,  which  will  keep  the  work  teams,  cows 
and  pigs  during  summer  and  give  a  good  place  for 
animals  to  run  and  exercise  in  cold  weather  when 
it  will  not  do  to  let  them  step  on  the  alfalfa  field. 

As  working  horses  need  little  or  no  grain  in  winter 
when  they  have  good  alfalfa  hay  it  seems  clear  that 
the  7,000  bushels  of  corn  will  about  balance  the  450 
tons  of  hay.  If  there  is  need  of  more  corn  to  feed 
out  the  pigs  it  can  be  bought.  If  cattle  or  sheep  are 


242  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

to  be  fed,  or  dairy  cows  kept,  one  can  hardly  have 
too  much  alfalfa, 

The  cash  value  of  these  crops  would  be  about  as 
follows :  The  farmer  oould  not  sell  all  of  the  7,000 
bushels  of  corn  since  his  horses  must  be  fed.  He 
could  sell  6,000  bushels,  for  say  50  cents  per  bushel  or 
$3,000,  or  he  could  sell  of  his  hay,  400  tons,  by  feed- 
ing his  com  stover  to  his  cows  and  work  teams ;  the 
hay  would  be  worth  about  $8  per  ton  as  an  average 
low  price,  or  $3,200  or  more.  The  1,000  bushels  of 
barley  would  be  worth  say  60  cents,  or  $600.  The 
gross  returns  then  from  the  300  acre  farm  devoted 
to  corn  and  alfalfa  would  be  around  $6,800.  And  if 
one  bought  what  phosphorus  his  crops  took  out  of 
his  soil  it  is  probable  that  he  could  keep  on  selling 
off  these  crops  for  some  years.  It  would  certainly 
be  far  better  to  feed  the  crops,  and  the  profits  ought 
to  be  larger  in  proportion. 

Crop  Failures. — "Hold  on!"  I  hear  the  reader 
say,  '  *  do  you  not  allow  for  crop  failures  in  this  esti- 
mate of  yours!" 

One  has  occasionally  a  poor  year  in  corn  growing. 
A  crop  failure  in  corn  grown  on  well  drained,  well 
enriched  land,  on  alfalfa  sod,  has  yet  to  be  recorded. 
A  crop  failure  with  alfalfa  has  not  yet  been  recorded. 
Certainly  some  years  produce  more  than  other  years. 
Alfalfa  is  the  safest  and  surest  of  all  crops  when 
established  on  kindly  soil.  The  risk  is  very  slight, 
only  one  has  always  the  labor  of  harvest,  not  the 
labor  of  preparing  the  land  each  year,  of  eternally 
seeding. 


ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION.          243 

Saving  of  Labor  Cost  in  Alfalfa  Growing. — Note 
in  this  example  that  on  the  320-acre  farm  only  80 
acres  are  plowed  each  year  for  corn,  and  40  acres 
more  plowed  and  sowed  to  alfalfa,  only  120  acres 
of  plowing  in  all.  The  rest  of  the  land  needs  neither 
plowing  nor  planting;  60  acres  of  it  in  permanent 
pasture,  120  acres  of  it  in  alfalfa,  already  sown, 
already  set,  needing  only  the  sun  and  showers  to  leap 
into  joyful  harvest.  The  saving  of  labor  is  tremen- 
dous on  an  alfalfa  farm  rightly  managed. 

A  Shorter  Rotation. — One  can  use  this  rotation 
with  corn  and  alfalfa;  Corn  one  year,  wheat  one 
year,  the  stubble  plowed  and  sown  to  alfalfa,  al- 
falfa two  years,  then  corn  again.  This  takes  four 
fields  and  is  in  many  ways  a  good  rotation,  and  a 
labor  saver,  too.  How  would  it  figure  out  on  a  300- 
acre  farm! 

Sixty  acres  are  devoted  to  corn  and  as  this  is  al- 
ways on  alfalfa  sod  and  must  also  have  manure,  we 
can  not  well  escape  a  yield  of  90  bushels  per  acre,  or 
anyway  5,000  bushels.  Corn  stubble  well  prepared 
is  a  good  place  for  wheat.  The  60  acres  of  wheat 
then  we  will  say  produces  25  bushels  per  acre,  or 
1,500  bushels.  The  wheat  stubble  is  plowed  instantly 
when  the  wheat  is  harvested  and  sown  to  alfalfa 
which  is  mown  for  two  years.  This  gives  120  acres 
in  alfalfa  each  year  which  will  produce  480  or  500 
tons  of  hay.  Then  there  are  60  acres  of  pasture, 
orchard  and  woodlot,  as  in  the  preceding  example. 
Summing  this  up  we  have  5,000  bushels  of  corn,  and 
selling  4,000  bushels  at  50  cents  gives  $2,000.  The 


244  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

1,500  bushels  of  wheat  may  bring  $1  per  bushel  and 
may  not ;  call  it  that  and  we  have  $1,500.  By  utiliz- 
ing the  corn  stover  the  alfalfa  hay  could  mostly  be 
sold;  say  we  sell  400  tons  of  it  at  $8,  we  have  $3,200. 
Adding  up  we  have  gross  sales  in  this  instance  of 
$6,700.  The  thing  works  out  about  the  same.  In 
some  ways  this  is  the  better  rotation.  For  one  thing 
corn  following  corn,  even  for  two  years,  suffers 
somewhat  from  insects.  In  this  rotation  corn  is  al- 
most absolutely  sure  as  it  is  always  on  alfalfa  sod 
and  is  manured  as  well.  It  sho.uld  never  yield  less 
than  100  bushels  per  acre  under  such  treatment. 

Work  for  this  Rotation. — In  this  rotation  one  finds 
this  amount  of  work  to  do  each  year :  60  acres  of 
alfalfa  sod  to  break.  This  should  be  mown  off  four 
times  as  the  late  mowing  for  some  reason  makes  the 
roots  easier  to  break.  One  good  three-horse  team 
of  heavy  horses  will  break  the  60  acres,  taking  it  in 
a  leisurely  fashion  from  October  till  spring,  when- 
ever there  is  open  weather.  Alfalfa  sod  fits  easily 
for  corn.  The  wheat  is  sown  in  the  clean  corn 
stubble  by  simply  disking  and  drilling  in.  It  should 
have  additional  phosphorus  to  start  it  vigorously 
off  before  cold  weather.  The  wheat  stubble  should 
be  plowed  very  swiftly  after  the  wheat  is  taken  off, 
and  here  is  the  worst  feature  of  this  scheme;  at  the 
same  time  one  may  need  teams  in  the  corn  field  and 
in  the  alfalfa  meadow.  It  may  be  necessary  to  ar- 
range to  hire  additional  teams  at  this  time  to  get  this 
seeding  well  and  promptly  done.  It  will  greatly  help 
if  the  wheat  stubble  is  thoroughly  disked  the  mo- 


ALB1  ALFA  IN   CROP  ROTATION.  245 

ment  the  wheat  is  cut  and  shocked  ;  this  will  conserve 
moisture  and  make  the  plowing  easier.  Or  on  some 
soils  and  in  some  climates  the  disking  alone  will  be 
all  that  is  needed  for  alfalfa  seeding,  so  it  is  very 
thoTOugh.  And  again  there  are  places  where  when 
the  land  is  once  well  inoculated  with  bacteria  alfalfa 
may  be  sown  in  the  wheat  in  the  spring  with  first 
rate  stands  resulting.  If  this  is  done  the  seed 
should  not  be  sown  early;  the  land  should  get  dry 
enough  to  harrow  and  in  April  should  be  thoroughly 
harrowed,  not  enough  to  destroy  the  wheat,  but 
enough  to  make  a  good  seedbed,  and  the  seed  sown 
and  dragged  in.  This  often  increases  the  yield  of 
wheat  and  is  pretty  sure  to  result  in  a  good  stand  of 
alfalfa.  It  is  not  safe  to  try  this  method  of  seeding 
except  where  wheat  stands  up  well  and  Where  the 
land  is  thoroughly  well  inoculated  with  bacteria. 

What  Is  Alfalfa  Land  WortM—  Carrying  these 
two  examples  to  their  conclusion,  what  is  good  al- 
falfa producing  land  in  the  cornbelt  of  America 
worth  as  an  investment! 

Everything  depends  upon  the  management.  Here 
is  an  estimate  of  the  cost  of  carrying  on  this  farm  : 

EXPENSES. 
Labor  of  4  men  for  a  year  .....................................  $1,600 

Interest  on  and  deterioration  in  farm  teams  .................     500 

Extra  labor  in  harvest,  threshing:  bill  .......  ................     400 

Depreciation  in  machinery,  repairs,  fertilizer  ...............     400 

Taxes  and  repair  of  fences  ..................................  •     50° 

Total  .......................................................  $3,400 

INCOME. 
From  sales  of  corn,  wheat  and  alfalfa  ......................  $6,700 

From  colts,  pigs,  poultry,  veals,  (pasture)  ...................      30° 


Total  .......................  : 

Less  expense  ..............................................  •  3,400- 

Net  income  ...............................................  *3'600 


246  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

This  is  6%  interest  on  $60,000.  Thus  the  land 
yields  return  on  a  valuation  of  $200  per  acre. 

Are  these  fanciful  figures?  Not  at  all,  but  plain 
matter  of  fact  business.  And  while  we  are  estimat- 
ing profits  by  sale  of  hay  and  grain,  we  do  this  only 
because  it  is  the  easily-done  thing,  urging  all  along 
that  the  hay  and  grain  be  fed  on  the  farm  and  the 
manure  returned  to  the  land,  when  net  profits  will 
often  be  much  greater  than  indicated  above. 

Such  Profits  in  Actual  Practice. — And  are  there 
many  farms  now  ready  to  yield  corn  and  alfalfa  in 
this  fashion?  No.  Most  farms  need  thorough  un- 
der-draining first.  Hardly  any  of  Illinois  is  well 
enough  drained  for  alfalfa,  neither  is  much  of  In- 
diana or  Ohio.  Iowa  has  more  dry  land,  perhaps. 
Nearly  any  farm  that  a  man  might  choose  to  make 
into  an  alfalfa  and  corn  farm  would  need  much  work 
before  he  could  safely  expect  any  such  returns.  He 
can  find  an  acre,  or  a  field  that  is  all  right;  let  him 
then  determine  that  ere  he  is  thro-ugii  with  the  thing 
it  will  all  of  it  be  good  enough.  Make  it  a  legacy  to 
the  children  to  leave  them  a  farm  so  well  under- 
drained,  so  well  limed,  if  lime  is  needed,  so  fertile 
that  they  can  realize  these  results.  It  is  easy;  there 
is  no  step  to  be  found  out ;  the  way  is  clear  and  plain 
and  the  land  will  pay  for  the  work  as  you  go  on. 

Rotation  in  the  Dairy  Region. — In  northern  Ohio, 
Illinois,  Wisconsin  and  New  York  dairying  is  a  great 
business.  Here  alfalfa  is  especially  desirable  and 
so  is  silage  corn.  Here  also  potatoes  thrive  and  are 


ALFALFA  IN  CROP  ROTATION.          247 

profitable.  Let  us  see  what  sort  of  rotation  is 
adapted  to  this  region. 

A  considerable  amount  of  land  will  naturally  be 
devoted  to  permanent  pasture.  Supposing  we  take 
160  acres  of  land  to  be  put  under  the  plow.  We  will 
begin  with  a  field  <of  potatoes,  40  acres,  planted  early, 
thoroughly  well  cultivated,  dug  early  and  marketed, 
say  200  bushels  per  acre.  This  is  8,000  bushels  a,t 
50  cents,  or  $4,000.  Alfalfa  is  sown  after  the  pota- 
toes. This  remains  two  years  after  the  first  year, 
thus  80  acres  will  be  mown,  or  320  tons  of  hay. 
Forty  acres  will  be  turned  under  each  year  for  corn, 
part  for  the  silo,  part  for  the  crib.  .On  the  alfalfa 
sod  the  corn  will  need  no  manure;  this  may  all  be 
applied  to  the  corn  stubble  and  the  land  planted  to 
potatoes  and  thus  back  again  to  alfalfa. 

How  Many  Coivs? — Fifty  cows  will  consume  in  six 
months  about  100  tons  of  alfalfa  hay.  Letting  them 
have  a  ration  of  it,  as  is  wise,  at  milking  time  during 
summer,  spring  and  fall  they  will  get  away  easily 
with  150  tons.  Horses  will  take  a  lot  more  and  there 
will  evidently  be  a  surplus  unless  some  good  heifers 
are  raised.  Fifty  cows  will  consume  200  tons  of  si- 
lage in  six  months.  That  will  take  the  corn  from  20 
acres  or  less  of  the  40  devoted  to  it  and  leave  approxi- 
mately 20  acres  to  be  ripened  and  put  in  crib. 

Profit  from  the  Coivs. — As  to  the  profit  of  keeping 
the  50  cows  I  prefer  to  let  the  experienced  dairyman 
make  the  estimate.  There  are  cows  that  yield  as 
much  as  $125  in  a  year,  and  even  much  more  than 
that,  and  others  that  drop  far  below  $100.  It  is  safe 


248  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

to  leave  the  question  with  the  dairyman,  merely 
pointing  out  to  him  that  with  corn  and  alfalfa  he 
needs  buy  no  protein ;  all  that  the  old  cow  gives  him 
will  be  his  and  will  come  from  his  own  soil.  And 
steadily,  if  he  cares  for  the  manure,  will  his  farm  im- 
prove in  fertility. 

The  Labor  Cost. — The  labor  co-st  of  this  farm  will 
not  be  very  heavy,  aside  from  the  dairy  work.  Forty 
acres  of  alfalfa  sod  will  be  plowed  each  year  for  corn, 
40  acres  sown  to  alfalfa  after  potatoes;  the  rest  of 
tillage  work  will  be  simple  and  easily  managed. 
Should  more  than  50  cows  be  kept  more  of  the  corn 
will  be  made  into  silage,  which  may  cause  a  need  of 
some  dry  grain  not  produced  on  the  farm,  mainly 
for  horse  feeding, 


YIELD  OF  ALFALFA. 

I  desire  to  raise  no  hopes  in  the  reader's  mind 
that  can  not  be  realized  and  I  have  thus  sought  to  be 
moderate  in  my  estimates  of  what  alfalfa  would 
yield  per  acre.  It  is  a  most  interesting  question  to 
study,  the  possible  yield  of  alfalfa  in  various  soils. 
In  California,  with  a  very  long  growing  season,  we 
are  assured  that  as  much  as  12  tons  of  dry  hay  has 
been  harvested  per  acre.  This  of  course  was  done 
by  irrigation  in  a  soil  peculiarly  well  fitted  to  alfalfa 
growing.  It  may  fairly  be  taken  as  the  extreme 
limit  of  possibilities.  There  are  alfalfa  fields  that 
because  of  unfitness  of  soil,  do  not  yield  more  than 
one  or  two  tons  per  acre.  What  then,  ought  we  to 
get? 

Moisture  the  Limiting  Factor. — Given  plant  food 
in  the  soil  and  proper  bacterial  relations  alfalfa 
ought  to  grow  about  as  well  in  one  place  as  in  an- 
other. The  limiting  factor  in  almost  all  crop  pro- 
duction is  water.  Alfalfa  usually  does  not  have 
moisture  enough  to  make  a  maximum  crop.  Even 
on  wet  soils,  and  chiefly  on  undrained  soils,  it  does 
not  have  water  enough.  That  is  because  its  roots  do 
not  work  in  undrained  soils  so  it  must  forage  only 
on  the  surface.  All  plants  drink  their  food ;  they  do 
not  eat  as  animals  do.  Given  water  enough  in  a  deep 
pervious  soil  that  the  roots  can  use,  and  plant  food, 
alfalfa  will  do  its  best. 

(249) 


250  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

There  is  hardly  any  other  plant  that  will  so  thor- 
oughly pump  the  moisture  out  of  soils  as  alfalfa. 
Its  roots  reach  down  deep,  its  leaves  transpire  a 
vast  amount  of  water  every  day.  For  that  reason 
alfalfa  is  not  usually  very  beneficial  to  a  young 
orchard,  as  it  dries  out  the  land  too  much.  The 
writer  has  seen  a  thick  stand  of  Kentucky  blue  grass 
so  dried  out  by  the  alfalfa  growing  with  it  (the  grass 
an  intruder)  that  it  killed  it  out,  root  and  branch. 
This  of  course  is  most  unusual;  as  a  rule  the  grass 
lives  long  enough  to  choke  the  alfalfa. 

Amount  of  Water  Used. — Unfortunately  no  one  has 
determined  the  amount  of  moisture  used  by  alfalfa 
in  making  a  pound  of  dry  matter.  Taking  the  red 
clover  plant  as  a  guide  we  may  assume  that  it  re- 
quires from  400  to  500  pounds  of  water  for  each 
pound  of  dry  matter  made.  Guessing  that  it  takes 
450  pounds  of  water  to  make  one  pound  of  dry  mat- 
ter we  reach  the  conclusion  that  to  grow  six  tons  of 
alfalfa  hay  will  require  about  2,500  tons  of  water. 
That  is  equivalent  to  about  25  inches  of  rainfall,  if 
none  of  it  were  lost.  There  is  beside  a  considerable 
loss  by  evaporation  from  the  soil.  To  balance  that 
we  know  that  we  have  a  store  of  subsoil  moisture 
gathered  during  the  winter  and  early  spring  rains. 

Now,  the  rainfall  during  the  18  weeks  that  alfalfa 
makes  its  hay  crops  (in  the  cornbelt  region)  is  sel- 
dom more  than  18  inches  and  is  often  very  much  less 
than  that.  So  it  is  clear  that  lack  of  moisture  is 
often  the  limiting  factor  in  alfalfa  growing.  For 
that  reason  the  writer,  while  he  has  grown  six  tons 


YIELD   OF   ALFALFA.  251 

on  one  acre  on  Woodland  Farm  repeatedly  and  has 
known  of  much  heavier  yields  elsewhere,  has  not 
estimated  that  even  good  alfalfa  would  yield  more 
than  five  tons  to  the  acre,  and  in  fact  advises  grow- 
ers to  be  grateful  if  they  get  four  tons — grateful, 
but  not  satisfied,  as  they  should  begin  at  once  to  con- 
sider in  What  way  they  can  bring  up  their  average 
yield. 

It  is  unfair  to  the  alfalfa  plant  to  assume  that  it 
has  no  greater  producing  power  than  red  clover, 
given  the  same  amount  of  moisture.  It  probably 
makes  much  better  use  of  its  water  than  does  red 
clover.  And  some  varieties  of  alfalfa  can  do  more 
with  a  given  amount  of  water  than  can  other  varie- 
ties. Unfortunately  we  do  not  yet  find  any  variety 
specially  adapted  to  dry  soils  and  hot  climates  that 
is  at  home  in  a  rainy  land  or  will  do  as  much  there 
as  common  alfalfa. 

Increasing  Water-Holding  Capacity. — In  what 
way  can  the  water-holding  capacity  of  the  land  be 
increased?  By  deep  draining,  first,  since  that  lets 
the  alfalfa  roots  feed  down  deep.  By  deep  plowing 
next.  By  use  of  the  subsoil  plow.  The  latter  is  in 
many  soils  a  very  potent  factor  in  increasing  the 
yield  of  alfalfa  in  dry  years. 

Yields  Under  Irrigation. — In  irrigated  regions 
rainfall  is  of  course  not  a  limiting  factor.  There 
soil  fertility,  length  of  season  and  systems  of  man- 
agement control  the  yield  very  largely.  I  feel  cer- 
tain that  I  have  grown  nearly  10  tons  of  dry  alfalfa 
hay  per  acre  on  good  land  in  a  valley  of  Utah,  under 


252  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

a  very  hot  sun,  with,  abundant  water  and  a  long 
growing  season.  The  practice  was  to  flood  the  land 
immediately  before  mowing  off  the  crop;  this  made 
the  alfalfa  start  vigorously  into  new  growth  as  soon 
as  it  was  raked  off.  In  a  week  another  flooding  was 
given,  the  earth  taking  all  the  water  it  could  absorb. 
As  this  land  was  beautifully  drained  by  being  under- 
laid with  sand  and  gravel  of  great  depth  and  no  un- 
derlying moisture  it  never  suffered  from  too  much 
moisture;  thus  growth  was  extremely  rapid. 

Furthermore,  in  that  arid  region  the  subsoil  is 
quite  as  fertile  as  the  top  soil.  There  is  little  differ- 
ence in  texture  o,r  soil  content  whether  one  takes  soil 
from  the  surface  or  from  a  depth  of  20  feet  or  more, 
and  doubtless  the  alfalfa  roots  penetrated  quite  20 
feet  in  that  soil. 

I.  D.  O'Donnell  once  pointed  out  to  the  writer 
near  Billings,  Mont.,  an  irrigated  farm  of  exactly 
160  acres,  all  in  alfalfa  except  a  small  lot  around  the 
house  and  barn,  maybe  two  acres  in  all,  and  from 
which  he  had  bought  the  hay  one  year.  It  amounted 
to  fully  1,000  tons,  or  a  little  more  than  six  tons  per 
acre. 

Irrigation  is  impractical  under  eastern  farm  con- 
ditions, as  a  rule.  There  are  farms,  however,  near 
the  mountains,  in  what  might  be  called  the  Piedmont 
sections  of  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
Virginia  and  the  Carolinas,  where  irrigation  would 
be  quite  easily  arranged  and  some  day  this  will  be 
done.  Irrigation  would  pay  richly  in  the  East  as  well 
as  in  the  West.  It  is  much  practiced  in  humid  Eng- 


YIELD   OF   ALFALFA.  253 

land,  in  France,  Italy  and  other  lands  where  farm- 
ing is  carried  to  a  high  pitch  of  perfection.  Irriga- 
tion of  alfalfa  is  only  practicable  where  soils  are 
permeable  so  that  any  excess  of  moisture  will  read- 
ily sink  away,  or  else  are  thoroughly  well  under- 
drained. 

Poverty  of  Soil  a  Factor. — After  all  the  most  fre- 
quent limiting  factor  in  alfalfa  production  in  the 
eastern  states  is  soil  fertility.  There  is  not  enough 
phosphorus  in  the  land,  or  it  lacks  humus  and  bac- 
teria, or  it  lacks  abundant  carbonate  of  lime.  On 
Woodland  Farm  I  once  applied  phosphorus  to  an 
alfalfa  meadow  set  about  three  years,  using  acid 
phosphate  at  the  rate  of  about  250  pounds  per  acre. 
Strips  were  left  with  no  phosphate  to  test  the  effect. 
Where  additional  phosphorus  was  given  the  land  the 
yield  of  hay  was  nearly  doubled.  Thus  about  $2 
worth  of  fertilizer  made  a  growth  of  about  two  tons 
of  hay  per  acre.  This  astonishing  profit  from  the 
use  of  phosphorus  on  alfalfa  was  the  beginning  of 
regular  use  of  phosphate  fertilizers  on  new  meadows 
and  old  on  Woodland  Farm. 

The  plain  truth  seems  to  be  that  along  the  40th 
parallel,  in  the  region  of  the  corn  belt  we  ought  to 
mow  at  least  four  tons  of  alfalfa  hay  per  acre  and 
could,  by  making  our  soils  right,  get  six  tons  with 
favoring  seasons. 


DISKING  AND  CULTIVATING. 

In  some  regions  it  is  a  practice  to  disk  alfalfa  once 
or  more  each  year.  In  Kansas  and  Oklahoma  it  is 
often  practiced  to  disk  once  in  the  spring  and  again 
after  each  cutting  as  soon  as  the  hay  can  be  removed 
from  the  ground.  It  is  believed  that  disking  con- 
serves much  moisture  and  otherwise  promotes  the 
growth  of  the  alfalfa.  It  has  often  been  asserted 
that  the  disking  splits  the  crowns  and  thus  thickens 
up  the  stand.  This  is  as  though  one  were  to  split 
down  the  tree  trunks  in  his  orchard  "to  thicken  the 
stand. ' '  The  splitting  of  alfalfa  crowns  can  do  noth- 
ing but  harm  and  often  starts  a  decay  of  root  that 
ends  in  the  death  of  the  plant.  However,  the  result 
of  disking  is  often  beneficial  when  done  in  early 
spring,  before  growth  sets  in;  It  certainly  deters 
weed  and  grass  growth  and  lets  air  and  water  into 
the  soil.  Later  diskings  help  in  some  regions  and 
soils  and  do  mischief  in  others.  The  main  beneficial 
effect  of  disking  is  the  conservation  of  moisture  and 
destruction  of  weeds  or  gra'sses. 

In  Louisiana  disking  alfalfa  seems  beneficial  on 
the  whole.  In  Kansas  it  is  much  practiced  and  some 
think  it  very  helpful,  while  others  declare  that  ex- 
cessive disking  materially  reduces  the  yield.  On 
Woodland  Farm  disking  when  fertilizer  was  sown 
at  the  same  time  has  done  wonders;  disking  alone 
has  in  some  instances  decreased  the  yield. 

(254) 


DISKING  AND   CULTIVATING.  255 

Disk  with  Care. — Disking  of  alfalfa  must  be  done 
with  care  and  discrimination.  If  alfalfa  roots  are 
cut  off  by  a  disk  harrow  or  any  other  instrument 
the  plant  dies.  Old  and  tough  roots  are  not  in  much 
danger  of  being  cut  off.  Young  alfalfa,  with  more 
slender  roots,  is  easily  enough  injured  or  killed. 
Thus  the  disks  should  not  be  sharp  as  knife  edges 
and  should  be  set  straight  enough  not  to  cut  off  the 
crowns.  It  is  well  for  the  owner  of  the  field  to  drive 
the  disk.  Dig  up  the  land  as  thoroughly  as  you 
please,  but  do  not  cut  off  many  crowns.  One  may 
disk  and  immediately  cross-disk  in  early  spring, 
burying  up  the  alfalfa  crowns  somewhat,  and  no 
harm  will  result  as  they  will  come  through  pretty 
soon.  After  this  disking  I  think  it  much  of  a  local 
question  whether  one  should  disk  more  or  not.  If 
blue  grass  has  run  in,  or  any  perennial  grass,  it  may 
be  wise  to  dig  it  out  or  it  may  be  wiser  to  turn  it  all 
under,  plant  corn,  then  re-seed. 

Prevention  of  Grass  Best. — As  a  matter  of  fact,  a 
dollar  spent  in  buying  carbonate  of  lime  and  phos- 
phorus, with  drainage,  will  do  more  toward  keeping 
weeds  and  grass  out  of  alfalfa  than  two  dollars 
worth  of  labor  spent  in  disking.  Where  plantains 
come  and  weedy  growths  the  soil  is  wrong;  remedy 
that  and  the  alfalfa  will  smother  all  else.  Where 
crab  grass  troubles,  as  it  does  in  the  South,  an  abun- 
dant supply  of  carbonate  of  lime  in  the  soil  will 
make  the  alfalfa  too  much  for  it,  unless  perhaps  it 
may  come  very  late  in  the  season,  when  it  is  not 
worth  noticing. 


256  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

The  Alfalfa  Harrow. — There  is  a  special  alfalfa 
harrow  made  like  a  disk  harrow  only  with  circles  of 
sharp  spikes  that  are  supposed  to  penetrate  the 
ground  and  loosen  it,  throwing  out  the  grass 
roots  without  injuring  the  alfalfa.  The  theory  of 
this  implement  is  good  but  in  practice  it  does  not 
work  so  well.  There  is  difficulty  in  getting  it  to 
penetrate  deeply  and  if  it  throws  out  grass  it  is 
speedily  wound  up  on  the  axle  so  that  I  am  not  at 
all  certain  that  the  machine  will  supersede  the  ordi- 
nary disk  harrow. 

The  Spring  Tooth  Harrow. — Where  Kentucky 
bluegrass  is  coming  in,  or  bermuda  or  other  grasses, 
after  all  the  best  thing  probably  to  rake  them  out  is 
the  spring  toothed  harrow.  One  needs  a  strong  har- 
row, not  too  wide,  and  weighted  well,  when  if  the 
alfalfa  is  well  established  and  strongly  rooted  it 
will  be  relieved  of  its  encumbering  grasses  without 
being  materially  harmed  itself.  Or  the  spring  tooth 
harrow  may  be  used  after  the  disk  harrow. 

A  Deep  Tilling  Machine. — The  Spalding  deep  till- 
ing machine  is  the  invention  of  a  Californian  and 
was  first  used  there  in  plowing  heavy  adobe  soils.  It 
is  essentially  a  very  large  and  strong  disk  plow  hav- 
ing two  24"  disks  set  to  run  in  the  one  furrow.  With 
this  plow  one  can  readily  plow  12"  to  16"  deep.  The 
forward  disk  throws  down  the  upper  surface  soil, 
with  its  trash  and  weed  seeds.  The  following  disk 
throws  over  this  top  earth  8"  of  the  subsoil,  bring- 
ing up  earth  free  from  weed  seeds.  All  the  soil 
turned  is  very  efficiently  pulverized.  In  certain  soils 


DISKING   AND   CULTIVATING.  257 

where  the  subsoil  is  well  stored  with  lime  and  the  top 
soil  somewhat  lime-hungry  this  machine  will  do  in- 
calculable good.  It  is  probable  that  in  almost  any 
soil  meant  to  be  devoted  to  alfalfa  this  machine  will 
very  greatly  increase  the  yield.  It  is  easy  to  get  a 
stand  in  the  clean  earth  thrown  up  from  below.  The 
deep  stirring,  the  aeration,  the  reservoir  for  moisture 
all  help  make  the  land  fit  for  alfalfa,  To  deepen  sud- 
denly the  plow  furrow  to  16"  might  on  many  soils  be 
injurious  to  corn,  but  it  could  hardly  be  anything  but 
helpful  to  alfalfa  and  corn  after  the  alfalfa  would 
reap  the  benefit. 

The  three  good  purposes  secured  by  use  of  this 
machine  are  first,  the  loosening  and  aeration  of  the 
soil,  next  the  turning  up  of  a  fresh  and  unexhausted 
supply  of  carbonate  of  lime  (which  would  not  be 
found  in  all  subsoils),  and  third,  the  making  of  a 
clean  seedbed  of  fresh  earth  from  the  subsoil  and  the 
burying  deep  down  of  weed  and  grass  seeds. 


WEEDS  AND  GRASSES. 

Much  ado  is  made  over  the  fact  that  in  some 
regions  weeds  and  grasses  trouble  alfalfa.  It  has 
been  proposed  to  plant  it  in  rows  and  cultivate  it  in 
order  to  subdue  these  intruders;  indeed,  this  very 
thing  is  practiced  in  some  regions.  In  alfalfa  grow- 
ing sections  little  thought  is  given  to  the  question  of 
weeds  or  grasses  in  the  fields.  The  alfalfa  seems 
able  to  subdue  almost  every  intruder.  There  are  a 
few  exceptions ;  some  weeds  persevere  in  even  good 
alfalfa  soils.  It  is  true,  however,  that  when  the  soil 
is  made  right  and  a  good  stand  of  alfalfa  secured 
one  need  give  weeds  little  thought.  It  is  ten  times 
better  to  spend  effort  making  soil  conditions  right 
than  to  spend  it  in  fighting  weeds. 

Some  Troublesome  Weeds. — Some  of  the  weeds 
that  trouble  in  certain  sections  and  not  in  others  are 
crab  grass  (an  annual  grass),  wild  cress,  chickweed, 
(an  annual  that  makes  most  of  its  growth  in  winter), 
lamb's  quarter,  pigweed  and  ragweed.  Crab  grass 
and  sheep  sorrel  seem  never  to  trouble  alfalfa  seri- 
ously when  the  land  is  full  of  carbonate  of  lime.  Not 
that  the  lime  kills  the  crab  grass,  but  when  there  is 
lime  enough  in  the  land  with  fertility,  the  alfalfa  is 
so  vigorous  as  to  distance  and  smother  the  crab 
grass.  Cress  comes  only  in  winter  and  usually 
makes  no  trouble  except  in  fall-sown  alfalfa  when  it 
may  injure  the  first  cutting  if  intended  for  market. 

(258) 


WEEDS   AND   GRASSES.  259 

Afterward,  if  the  soil  is  right,  it  will  not  be  seen. 
Chickweed  is  not  a  serious  disturbance  to  alfalfa  and 
when  present  may  be  harrowed  out  with  a  spike- 
toothed  harrow  in  early  spring.  Lamb's  quarter 
succumbs  to  mowing,  as  does  pigweed,  both  being 
annuals.  The  same  is  true  of  ragweed,  which  totally 
disappears  from  a  field  with  soil  made  right  and 
sown  to  alfalfa.  Sheep  sorrel,  that  vile  pest  of  old 
eastern  farms,  disappears  the  instant  alfalfa  is  sown 
among  it  on  land  filled  with  carbonate  of  lime  and 
made  rich.  So  disappears  that  pest  ox-eye  daisy; 
nothing  is  surer  to  take  it  out  than  alfalfa,  if  the  soil 
is  made  right.  Wild  carrot  is  out  when  alfalfa 
comes,  and  the  Canada  thistle  retreats,  to  be  seen  no 
more. 

The  terror  of  many  eastern  farms  is  found  in 
sheep  sorrel,  wild  carrot,  daisy  and  Canada  thistles. 
If  alfalfa  would  do  no  more  than  to  exterminate 
them  it  would  be  richly  worth  while.  Very  great  ef- 
fort is  yearly  expended  in  fighting  these  weeds.  If  a 
little  more  effort  was  put  with  that  already  spent, 
and  wasted,  in  unavailing  conflict,  in  the  way  of  put- 
ting the  soil  right,  making  it  dry,  filling  it  with  car- 
bonate of  lime,  filling  it  with  humus,  giving  it  phos- 
phorus and  then  alfalfa  seed,  the  battle  would  be 
won,  the  weeds  exterminated  and  at  no  cost  at  all,  as 
the  alfalfa  alone  would  far  more  than  repay  the 
farmer  for  all  his  effort  and  expense. 

There  are  other  weeds  that  are  exceedingly 
troublesome  that  alfalfa  causes  to  disappear.  The 
bindweed  or  morning-glory,  sometimes  called  wild 


260  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

sweet  potato,  an  exceedingly  troublesome  pest  in 
corn  fields  in  the  Middle  States,  is  exterminated  al- 
most completely  when  the  land  is  put  into  alfalfa. 
So  of  many  other  troublesome  things  that  might  be 
mentioned. 

Weeds  that  Kill  Alfalfa. — There  are  weeds,  how- 
ever, that  get  the  best  of  the  alfalfa.  Quack  or 
couch  grass  is  one  of  these.  This  grass  fills  the  soil 
with  a  dense  mat  of  roots,  each  one  a  burrowing, 
creeping  underground  s;tem  armed  with  a  'sharp 
point.  Wherever  it  gets  a  good  foothold  it  is  usual- 
ly too  much  for  the  alfalfa  and  I  am  unable  to  out- 
line any  good  and  easy  system  of  destroying  it. 
When  it  first  appears  upon  the  farm  it  should  be 
fought  and  exterminated  before  it  gets  much  foot- 
hold. It  is  possible  that  alfalfa  could  be  sown  in  the 
fall  and  so  stimulated  with  phosphorus  that  it  would 
start  very  vigorously  in  spring  and  thus  get  ahead 
of  the  grass  and  smother  it  out.  It  is  well  worth 
experiment  at  any  event.  And  it  may  be  that  by  vig- 
orous use  of  the  disk  harrow,  followed  with  the 
spring  tooth  harrow  the  roots  could  be  so  disturbed 
that  they  would  give  it  up,  and  the  alfalfa  yet  re- 
main practically  unhurt. 

Kentucky  blue  grass  is  another  grass  that  is  too 
much  for  alfalfa.  It  creeps  in  and  thickens  up  till 
after  a  time  the  alfalfa  is  seriously  weakened.  It  is 
hardly  worth  while  to  fight  so  good  a  thing  as  blue 
grass  though  it  can  be  torn  out  with  a  spring-tooth 
harrow.  Blue  grass  does  not  usually  come  in  before 
three  or  four  years,  and  by  that  time  it  is  well  to 


WEEDS   AND   GRASSES.  261 

plow  the  alfalfa  in  regular  course  of  rotation  any 
way.  Later  on  I  will  tell  of  what  good  may  come 
of  using  blue  grass  and  alfalfa  together. 

Plantains  are  a  serious  annoyance  in  alfalfa  fields. 
Drain  the  land  where  they  appear,  enrich,  and  if  need 
be  lime,  re-sow  and  plantains  will  be  a  thing  of  the 
past.  Canada  thistles  have  been  mentioned;  alfalfa 
is  the  best  known  eradicator  of  these. 

Sweet  clover  is  often  mentioned  as  a  weed  in  al- 
falfa fields.  It  is  usually  introduced  through  the 
presence  of  sweet  clover  seeds  in  the  alfalfa  seed. 
Often  the  unfortunate  seedsman  is  blamed  for  this. 
Sweet  clover  is  not  often  intentionally  added  .to  al- 
falfa seed.  Sometimes,  in  fact,  melilotus  seed  sells 
higher  than  alfalfa  seed.  The  seeds  are  nearly  ex- 
actly alike;  only  an  expert  can  tell  them  apart,  and 
no  machine  in  the  world  would  separate  them.  The 
sweet  clover  seeds  get  in  when  the  alfalfa  seed  is 
harvested,  through  accidental  admixture  in  the  west- 
ern fields,  where  it  quite  frequently  grows  along  the 
edges  of  the  fields.  A 'seedsman  who  is  quite  care- 
ful to  get  the  best  western  seed  is  very  likely  to  sell 
a  small  amount  of  'sweet  clover  seed,  quite  against 
his  desire. 

Sweet  clover  in  the  alfalfa,  however,  is  not  at  all  a 
serious  pest.  At  first  it  makes  its  bravest  showing; 
the  frequent  mowings  cause  it  to  disappear  and 
being  a  biennial  it  is  soon  gone  with  no  harm  done. 

Russian  thistle  comes  in  new  seedings  of  alfalfa 
from  western  sources.  This  promptly  disappears 
with  mowing.  Docks  in  alfalfa  will  probably  persist 


262  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

till  they  are  taken  out  with  the  spade,  though  some- 
times the  frequent  mowings  exterminate  them. 
Spearmint  disappears  with  cutting. 

Foxtail  grass  is  really  the  vilest  weed  that 
comes  in  alfalfa  in  the  cornbelt  region.  It  is  an  an- 
nual grass  that  comes  up  each  spring  or  some  time 
during  the  summer.  It  loves  an  alfalfa  sod.  Mow- 
ing it  does  not  destroy  it,  and  it  will  seed  if  no  more 
than  an  inch  high.  Fortunately  the  seeds  readily 
germinate  and  one  can  take  advantage  of  this  fact 
to  eradicate  it  practically  the  year  before  the  alfalfa 
is  sown.  If  he  will  put  the  land  to  .corn  or  some 
other^  cultivated  crop  and  so  carefully  cultivate  all 
the  season  that  not  one  head  of  foxtail  grass  goes  to 
seed,  the  thing  will  be  eradicated  from  that  field.  It 
does  not  seem  to  have  power  to  carry  seeds  over  in 
the  soil  as  do  so  many  weeds.  They  all  seem  to  ger- 
minate in  one  year  if  lying  in  the  soil  or  in  contact 
with  it,  and  if  the  seedlings  are  destroyed  without 
chance  of  maturing  seed  again  that  weed  is  eradi- 
cated from  that  field.  This  has  been  the  experience 
of  the  writer  and  his  brother  on  Woodland  Farm, 
where  a  60-acre  field  once  alive  with  foxtail  grass 
was  made  clean  in  one  year  except  some  places  along 
the  margins  where  cultivation  was  not  so  thorough 
as  it  should  have  been.  In  order  to  accomplish  this, 
however,  one  must  go  through  the  field  with  the  hoe 
at  least  twice  after  cultivation  has  ceased,  else  there 
will  be  estrayed  plants  maturing  seed  to  become  cen- 
ters of  future  infection. 

Yellow  trefoil  is  a  small,  low-growing  clover  with 


WEEDS   AND   GRASSES.  263 

a  small  yellow  bloom.  Its  botanical  name  is  ,Medi- 
cago  lupulina.  It  would  not  be  classed  as  a  weed 
only  that  it  is  so  often  used  to  adulterate  alfalfa 
seed.  It  is  a  cheaper  seed  than  alfalfa  and  much 
imported  seed  is  adulterated  with  this,  and  some 
unscrupulous  seedsmen  bring  the  seed  over  espe- 
cially for  purpose  of  mixing  with  alfalfa  seed.  It 
is  a  good  pasture  plant  and  in  Europe  is  often  sown 
with  other  clovers  to  make  a  good  bottom  for  cattle 
to  bite.  It  has  no  especial  value  with  us,  but  is  in  no 
sense  dangerous.  It  is  a  biennial. 

We  have  reserved  the  worst  for  the  last.  Dodder 
is  the  arch  enemy  of  the  alfalfa  grower.  Dodders 
are  parasitic  plants  that  begin  life  -from  seeds 
dropped  on  the  ground,  developing  slender,  nearly 
leafless  twining  stalks.  These  stems  wherever  they 
touch  plants  of  their  liking  send  out  roots  that  pene- 
trate the  host  plant  and  suck  its  juices.  Afterward 
the  parasite  does  not  again  send  roots  into  the  soil, 
but  twines  from  stem  to  stem  of  the  unfortunate  host 
plant  until  it  is  tied  together  in  a  tangled  mass.  Ulti- 
mately the  host  plants  are  usually  destroyed.  Dod- 
der has  usually  bright  yellow  or  orange  colored 
stems,  nearly  leafless,  with  very  small  flowers  close 
to  the  stems  and  many  seeds.  There  are  dodders 
that  attack  various  species  of  plants,  including  red 
clover  and  alfalfa. 

Dodder  always  starts  from  seed  which  is  found 
mixed  with  clover  and  alfalfa  seed.  At  first  there 
will  be  a  very  small  spot  infected  at  each  center 
where  a  seed  dropped;  later  it  will  be  a  spot  as  big 


264  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

as  one's  hat,  then  soon  it  will  be  2'  across,  and  thus 
rapidly  it  spreads  till  there  is  a  circle  of  dodder  sur- 
rounding a  devastated  and  dead  center,  the  circle 
rapidly  enlarging.  Prevention  is  the  best  remedy, 
and  is  easy  enough,  since  by  exercising  care  one  can 
buy  alfalfa  seed  free  from  dodder.  The  seeds  are 
not  impossible  to  separate  from  alfalfa  seeds  and 
careful  seedsmen  do  not  send  out  badly  infected 
alfalfa  seed.  It  may  be  possible,  however,  with  the 
best  intentioned  and  most  careful  of  seedsmen  that 
an  occasional  dodder  seed  will  get  through.  There- 
fore the  grower  should  be  on  his  guard  and  nip  the 
threatened  evil  in  the  bud  as  soon  as  it  is  seen. 

Eradication  of  dodder  is  easy  if  it  is  taken  soon 
enough.  Eemembering  that  as  it  has  no  root  system 
of  its  own  it  is  only  necessary  to  cut  down  the  alfalfa 
at  this  spot,  cutting  close  to  the  ground,  leave  the 
stuff  lie  where  it  grew  and  as  soon  as  it  is  thoroughly 
dry  place  an  armful  of  dry  straw  on  it  and  set  on 
fire.  This  will  usually  destroy  the  thing  completely. 
There  will  not  be  any  loss  worth  mentioning.  The 
fire  may  kill  a  few  alfalfa  plants,  but  it  is  probable 
that  they  will  start  again  from  their  roots.  Under 
no  conditions  should  the  infected  patches  be  raked 
and  the  dodder  put  in  with  the  hay.  This  distributes 
seed  over  the  farm,  and  besides  one  forgets  the  exact 
location  and  size  of  the  patches  if  they  are  raked. 

If  through  buying  inferior  alfalfa  seed  one  gets 
a  field  badly  infested  with  dodder  he  may  find  it 
best  to  plow  it  up,  grow  a  cleaning  crop  for  a  year, 
and  then  re-seed. 


WEEDS   AND   GRASSES.  265 

It  is  little  less  than  a  crime  to  cut  seed  from  a 
dodder-infested  field  and  put  it  on  the  market. 
While  it  is  true  that  most  of  the  dodder  seed  can 
be  taken  out,  yet  unfortunately  most  seedsmen  are 
too  careless  to  do  this  and  thus  the  pest  is  wide- 
spread and  immense  damage  results. 

There  is  a  clover  dodder  that  operates  just  as 
does  the  alfalfa  dodder,  another  one  seen  on  mint, 
and  one  on  flax.  I  do  not  think  these  dodders  able 
to  grow  on  other  plants  than  the  one  species  they 
select. 

To  avoid  dodder  get  samples  of  alfalfa  seed  from 
your  dealer  and  submit  them  to  your  experiment 
station,  or  to  the  Department  of  Agriculture  for 
examination  for  dodder.  If  it  is  present  in  any- 
thing more  than  an  infinitesimal  amount  inform 
your  dealer  and  choose  seed  from  another  bin.  It 
may  not  help  to  choose  another  seedsman,  and  then 
again  it  may. 


ALFALFA  DISEASES. 

Mention  has  frequently  been  made  to  the  appear- 
ance of  rust  on  alfalfa  leaves.  It  will  appear  in 
almost  all  parts  of  the  humid  states  after  alfalfa  has 
grown  about  40  days.  During  hot  and  humid 
weather  it  will  be  worst.  On  poorly  drained  soils  it 
will  be  worse  than  on  dry  soils.  When  alfalfa  suffers 
lack  of  inoculation  it  will  be  worst  of  all,  and  incur- 
able till  inoculation  has  been  given.  There  is  no  cure 
for  the  disease  unless  one  can  remove  the  inducing 
causes.  If  the  land  is  wet,  drain  it.  If  it  needs  in- 
oculation, attend  to  that.  Lack  of  lime  is  an  inducing 
cause.  When  the  soil  is  fit  rust  troubles  hardly  at 
all.  It  appears  on  lower  leaves  slightly  at  time  when 
the  crop  should  be  cut  and  made  into  hay.  By  the 
time  rust  appears  again  it  will  be  cutting  time  again. 
It  is  worth  mention  again  that  too  early  mowing  in- 
duces rust. 

Alfalfa  Root  Rot. — Alfalfa  roots  can  not  endure 
submergence  in  water  in  warm  weather.  If  the  land 
fills  up  and  stands  full  of  water  for  a  time  when  the 
sun  is  hot  the  alfalfa  will  die.  If  it  stands  not  quite 
full,  but  with  the  subsoil  full  the  roots  will  decay  at 
the  water  line.  Thus  the  field  will  suddenly  begin 
to  fail  and  the  owner  may  wonder  why.  I  have  had 
fields  on  Woodland  fail  in  this  manner  when  tiles  be- 
came obstructed  and  rainfall  was  excessive.  I  have 
observed  similar  instances  in  Louisiana  and  other 

(366) 


ALFALFA   DISEASES.  267 

states.  This  is  not  the  true  "root  rot."  It  is  not 
contagious ;  drainage  will  stop  it,  but  once  rotted  the 
field  had  better  be  plowed,  planted  to  other  crops 
or  resown. 

The  Cotton  Root  Rot. — This  is  a  most  serious 
proposition,  fortunately  not  yet  widespread.  It  is 
found  to  some  extent  in  Texas,  Mexico  and  some 
other  cotton-growing  states.  "When  root  rot  attacks 
cotton  the  plants  die  in  a  circle,  ever  widening.  If 
alfalfa,  is  planted  in  a  field  infested  with  this  disease 
the  plants  die  in  similar  manner,  all  dying,  usually, 
leaving  a  round  spot  of  dead  alfalfa. 

There  is  no  known  available  remedy.  If  a  field  is 
badly  infected  with  root  rot  it  should  be  plowed  and 
devoted  to  other  crops  for  a  time.  It  is  not  now 
known  how  long  the  land  will  remain  infected.  Land 
known  to  be  infected  with  cotton  root  rot  should  not 
be  sown  to  alfalfa. 


SEEDING  GRASSES. 

Usually  alfalfa  grows  best  to  be  alone.  There  is, 
strictly  speaking,  no  other  plant  that  matches  it  very 
well  to  be  sown  with  it.  Nothing  else  matures  at 
just  the  same  time  or  makes  so  many  cuttings  as 
alfalfa.  However,  there  are  places  where  it  is  well 
to  mix  other  seeds  with  it. 

Red  Clover  and  Alfalfa. — In  some  parts  of  the 
eastern  states  red  clover  is  sown  with  alfalfa,  about 
5  Ibs.  of  red  clover  to  15  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  per  acre. 
The  result  is  said  to  be  very  good.  Where  the  red 
clover  is  sown  there  are  heavy  crops  of  the  mixture 
for  one  year  or  more  after  seeding,  then  when  the 
clover  has  died  out  the  alfalfa  is  said  to  grow  with 
more  vigor  than  on  adjoining  plots  where  it  was 
sown  alone.  I  have  seen  this  mixture  in  use  in 
France  and  with  it  some  grasses — I  think  rye  grass, 
orchard  grass  and  perhaps  timothy.  Certainly  the 
wealth  of  herbage  yielded  by  this  mixed  meadow  in 
Fiance  was  astounding.  It  was  not  intended  t-o  re- 
main long,  being  in  a  scheme  of  comparatively  short 
rotation. 

It  has  already  been  mentioned  that  alfalfa  ought 
at  all  times  to  be  added  to  red  clover  when  sown  on 
land  that  may  be  suspected  of  having  quality  enough 
to  permit  its  growth 

Timothy  in  Alfalfa. — In  some  instances  when  al- 
falfa is  meant  for  horse  feed  it  is  not  a  bad  plan  to 


SEEDING   GRASSES.  269 

sow  a  small  admixture  of  timothy  with  it.  This 
may  be  done  in  the  fall,  not  at  the  same  time  that 
the  alfalfa  is  sown,  but  later,  in  September,  when 
the  timo'thy  may  be  lightly  harrowed  in.  Timothy 
takes  very  readily  in  alfalfa,  if  sown  the  first  fall 
or  at  any  later  time.  When  fields  are  established, 
if  there  happen  to  be  any  thin  places  where  from 
wetness  of  soil  or  any  other  cause  the  alfalfa  does 
not  thrive  or  is  not  thick  enough,  timothy  may  be 
sown  there  and  will  grow  well.  The  first  cutting  of 
hay  will  be  a  mixture  of  mainly  timothy  and  alfalfa, 
the  succeeding  cuttings  will  be  nearly  pure  alfalfa. 
It  is  astonishing  the  burden  of  timothy  that  will 
result  when  alfalfa  is  mixed  with  it.  Bed  clover  in 
timothy  is  usually  a  detriment,  since  clover  is  some- 
what dusty  for  horse  feed ;  alfalfa  and  timothy  make 
a  mixture  hard  to  equal,  since  the  two  balance  each 
other. 

In  cutting  this  mixture  attention  should  be  given 
to  compromising  times  for  cutting  the  first  crop.  It 
will  not  do  to  cut  the  crop  when  the  alfalfa  is  per- 
fectly ready,  since  that  will  be  too  early  for  the 
timothy,  nor  will  it  do  to  wait  till  the  timothy  is 
just  right,  since  that  will  be  too  late  for  the  alfalfa. 
Timothy  cut  early  is  far  more  nutritious  and  diges- 
tible, in  any  case,  than  when  cut,  as  it  usually  is,  with 
see'd  formed. 

Alfalfa  and  Alsike  Clover.— I  have  seen  marvelous 
fields  of  mixed  alfalfa  and  alsike  clover.  This  mix- 
ture makes  especially  good  pasture.  When  alfalfa 
is  sown  for  mowing,  or  for  enduring  several  years, 


270  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN    AMERICA. 

it  is  doubtful  if  this  admixture  is  good,  but  when 
alsike  clover  is  sown  for  meadow  or  pasture  it  is 
evident  that  on  suitable  soils,  well  drained  and  sweet, 
alfalfa  makes  a  good  ally.  A  mixture  of  equal  parts 
of  seed  will  give  a  stand  of  alsike  with  a  lesser  pro- 
portion of  alfalfa  plants.  Or  the  mixture  may  be 
in  proportion  of  2  of  alfalfa  to  1  of  alsike  clover, 
which  will  give  a  pretty  evenly  divided  meadow. 
Cattle  and  pigs  love  to  graze  on  such  a  field  as  this. 

Alfalfa  and  Brome  Grass. — Brome  grass  (Bromus 
inermis)  is  a  good  grass  for  pasture  and  in  some 
places  makes  pretty  good  meadow.  It  is  a  cold-re- 
sistant, heat-resistant,  drouth-resistant  grass,  very 
vigorous  on  good  soil.  It  makes  a  dense  growth  of 
leaves  down  close  to  the  earth  and  the  stem  or  top 
is  not  very  important,  being  light  and  feathery. 
Animals  like  brome  grass  exceedingly  well  as  a 
pasture  grass.  The  writer  knows  of  no  other  grass 
so  palatable  to  sheep  and  cattle.  It  is  probable  that 
it  is  the  best  pasture  grass  yet  introduced  into 
America,  where  it  is  adapted  to  the  soil.  It  likes 
rich  land  and  when  grown  alone  with  no  clovers  in- 
termixed it  seems  soon  to  suffer  for  nitrogen  and 
falls  off  greatly  in  yield  of  forage.  When  mixed 
with  alfalfa  or  red  clover  it  seems  to  receive  fer- 
tilization from  association  with  its  sister  plant  and 
yields  very  much  more  heavily. 

Brome  grass  loves  to  grow  in  alfalfa.  It  is  prob- 
ably the  best  plant  to  sow  with  it  when  the  alfalfa 
is  to  be  grazed  with  cattle  or  sheep.  Alfalfa  is  not 
always  a  safe  pasture  for  cattle  or  sheep  when  sown 


SEEDING  GRASSES.  271 

unmixed  with  grasses.  In  some  regions  it  is  almost 
deadly  in  it  effects.  It  causes  bloat  or  hoven.  In 
other  regions  it  seems  a  safe  enough  pasture.  It  is 
very  noticeable,  however,  that  where  it  is  safe  pas- 
turage there  is  usually  found  a  considerable  admix- 
ture of  grasses  with  the  alfalfa.  Animals  grazing 
alfalfa  get  a  superabundance  of  protein  in  their  diet. 
This  makes  them  long  for  some  grass  or  other  car- 
bonacQous  diet.  When  grasses  are  mixed  with  al- 
falfa the  animals  will  eat  alternately  of  each.  Thus 
a  more  healthful  ration  is  compounded  by  the  very 
instincts  of  the  animals. 

In  using  an  alfalfa  pasture  that  had  in  it  a  con- 
siderable admixture  of  brome  grass  I  never  had  a 
serious  case  of  bloating  with  either  cattle  or  sheep. 
On  other  alfalfa  pastures  with  no  grass  I  had  more 
or  less  trouble  and  some  loss  from  death.  Further- 
more, I  saw  very  remarkable  results  in  growth  and 
fattening  of  animals  grazing  these  plants,  better 
than  I  had  ever  seen  on  any  other  pastures  in  the 
world,  considering  the  areas  of  land  used. 

Brome  grass  is  not  broom  sedge,  as  some  southern 
readers  might  infer ;  it  is  a  grass  coming  to  us  from 
eastern  Europe. 

Brome  grass  thickens  up  fast  by  underground 
stems  or  roots,  very  much  as  Kentucky  bluegrass 
does.  A  thin  stand  of  it  soon  becomes  a  thick  stand 
if  the  soil  is  fit.  It  ultimately  crowds  out  alfalfa, 
yet  for  a  few  years  they  grow  well  together  and 
make  an  immense  amount  of  grazing.  All  animals 
relish  it  exceedingly.  Even  Kentucky  bluegrass  is 


272  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

untouched  if  brome  grass  is  available.  For  that  rea- 
son it  does  not  thrive  when  sown  in  mixed  pastures 
with  other  grasses.  So  far  as  I  know  there  is  no 
other  grass  that  animals  will  eat  as  readily  as  they 
will  brome  grass. 

Seed  of  brome  grass  is  often  seriously  adulter- 
ated and  of  low  germinating  quality.  Fresh  seed 
grows  well.  Seed  may  be  grown  in  any  northern  or 
middle  state;  it  seeds  right  heavily.  The  usual 
sources  of  good  seed  are  the  Dakotas.  Brome  grass 
seed  ought  to  be  sown  in  the  spring.  To  get  it  in 
an  alfalfa  pasture  one  can  either  sow  with  the  alfalfa 
if  that  is  spring  sown,  or  he  can  harrow  the  fall  sown 
alfalfa  in  April  or  earlier  and  sow  the  brome  seed 
then.  If  it  is  a  thin  stand  at  first  no  matter ;  it  will 
presently  thicken  up.  It  must  be  sown  by  hand, 
broadcast.  Twenty  pounds  of  seed  is  enough  for 
an  acre  when  used  as  a  partner  with  alfalfa. 

Brome  Grass  as  a  Pasture  Grass. — After  alfalfa 
and  brome  grass  have  grown  together  for  some 
years  there  will  remain  little  else  than  brome  grass. 
Ultimately  the  yield  of  forage  will  be  much  de- 
creased because  of  depletion  of  soil  nitrogen.  Then 
it  may  be  disked  vigorously  in  the  spring  and  more 
alfalfa  seed,  or  seed  of  one  of  the  clovers  sown  in, 
with  a  liberal  application  of  phosphorus.  The  re- 
sult will  be  to  quadruple  the  yield  of  forage.  This 
grass  is  destined  to  come  into  wide  use  on  the  better 
soils  of  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  It 
is  an  efficient  soil  binder  and  stops  erosion.  It  is  a 
little  hard  to  get  out  of  soils  but  not  especially  so. 


SEEDING   GRASSES.  273 

The  writer  and  his  brother  have  worked  with  it  for 
more  than  twelve  years  with  no  especial  difficulty  in 
its  eradication  when  the  land  was  plowed  and 
planted  to  corn  and  well  cultivated. 

Winter  Grain  in  Alfalfa  Fields. — J.  M.  Westgate, 
of  the  Department  of  Agriculture,  is  sponsor  for 
the  subjoined: 

In  the  Southwest  the  mild  winters  and  the  occurrence  of 
much  of  the  rainfall  during  the  colder  months  make  it  possible 
to  seed  wheat  or  barley  in  a  stand  of  alfalfa  after  the  last  cutting 
and  harvest  it  at  the  proper  stage  for  hay  the  next  spring  with 
the  first  cutting  of  alfalfa.  The  presence  of  a  crop  of  small 
grain  during  the  winter  months  prevents  the  growth  of  trouble- 
some weeds,  which  sometimes  almost  ruin  the  first  cutting  of 
alfalfa.  This  practice  has  the  further  advantage  of  giving  a 
mixed  crop  of  alfalfa  and  grain  hay,  which  is  regarded  as  superior 
to  pure  alfalfa,  owing  to  the  scarcity  in  that  section  of  feeds  rich 
in  carbohydrates  or  starchy  matter.  This  method  is  also  com- 
mendable when  for  any  reason  the  stand  has  become  thin,  as 
through  the  action  of  field  mice.  The  amount  of  grain  to  be 
seeded  and  disked  in  depends  on  the  thickness  of  the  stand  of 
alfalfa.  This  practice  has  been  followed  for  many  years  in  cer- 
tain parts  of  the  Southwest,  although  its  value  does  not  appear 
to  be  recognized  to  the  extent  that  it  apparently  deserves. 

Alfalfa  and  Kentucky  Bluegrass. — Kentucky  blue- 
grass  (Poa  pratensis)  loves  alfalfa  exceedingly  well. 
When  soil  is  made  right  for  alfalfa,  it  is  just  right 
for  bluegrass.  Both  love  lime,  both  love  fertile 
soils,  both  love  well-drained  soils.  Alfalfa  also 
fills  the  land  with  nitrogen,  thus  the  bluegrass 
crowds  in.  Usually  it  is  classed  as  a  weed.  In  a 
meadow  devoted  only  to  mowing  it  is  a  hindrance, 
though  it  will  make  a  very  heavy  cutting  of  hay  at 
the  first  cutting.  The  mixture  also  makes  exceed- 
ingly good  hay,  especially  for  horses  or  cows. 

After  bluegrass  has  run  into  the  alfalfa  it  makes 


274  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

wonderful  pasture.  Perhaps  it  does  not  yield  as 
much  forage  as  does  the  mixture  of  brome  grass 
and  alfalfa,  but  it  is  a  close  second,  and  bluegrass 
is  indigenous  to  a  large  part  of  our  country.  Thus 
it  comes  in  usually  of  its  own  accord  because  of  the 
seed  latent  in  the  soil. 

Of  this  mixture  Robert  Giltner,  of  Henry  Co.,  Ky., 

wrote : 

I  find  that  alfalfa  thrives  well  with  us  when  we  have  used 
enough  lime  and  have  sown  it  on  fairly  well  drained  land,  made 
fertile.  After  a  few  years  the  bluegrass  comes  in  thick  and  I  do 
not  know  but  we  get  the  most  profit  from  it  then.  It  makes  the 
most  wonderful  pasture  that  I  have  ever  seen.  It  is  little  less 
than  marvelous  what  fat  lambs  come  from  these  pastures  and 
how  the  calves  thrive  and  the  colts  grazing  on  it.  After  the  pas- 
ture has  been  used  about  two  years  it  is  nearly  all  blue  grass, 
thicker  and  richer  than  ever  seen  before  on  the  land.  Then  we 
plow  it,  put  it  to  corn  and  resow  to  alfalfa  again. 

Some  men  have  exploited  alfalfa  and  bluegrass 
pasture  and  have  made  great  profit  from  the  use  of 
this  mixture  of  plants.  It  seems  especially  desirable 
as  a  cattle  pasture.  Very  great  gains  from  such 
pasture  are  reported.  When  it  is  desired  to  improve 
an  old  bluegrass  pasture  hardly  any  better  plan 
could  be  suggested  than  to  plow  it  in  fall  or  winter, 
setting  the  furrows  on  edge,  harrowing  in  April  and 
sowing  to  alfalfa.  If  the  land  needs  lime  it  should 
be  given ;  in  fact  everything  that  alfalfa  likes  should 
be  done  and  the  instructions  previously  given  should 
be  carefully  followed  in  order  to  get  a  good  stand. 
The  grass  will  come  thinly  the  first  year  and  thicker 
the  next.  The  yield  of  forage  will  be  quadrupled 
by  the  addition  of  the  alfalfa  and  when  ultimately 
the  grass  has  again  regained  possession  of  the  soil 


SEEDING   GRASSES.  275 

it  will  be  much  more  vigorous  and  productive  than 
before  it  was  plowed. 

This  is  a  most  practicable  scheme  that  deserves 
wide  application.  There  is  plenty  of  profit  in  good 
pasture.  England  is  a  land  of  grass  and  grazing; 
there  is  found  more  profit  in  grazing  than  in  grain 
growing.  The  same  conditions  are  rapidly  ap- 
proaching in  America.  Millions  of  acres  of  our  best 
lands  will  be  laid  down  in  permanent  pastures  be- 
cause of  the  failure  of  the  pastures  of  the  West  and 
the  advancing  prices  of  beef,  mutton  and  hoTses. 
Then  should  be  remembered  that  the  way  to  stimu- 
late bluegrass  is  to  associate  with  it  a  legume,  and 
alfalfa  seems  the  best  one  for  that  purpose  on  the 
best  soils.  It  is  very  easy  to  get  a  stand  of  alfalfa 
on  a  bluegrass  sod.  One  can  plow,  disk,  sow  the 
seed,  harrow  and  the  thing  is  done,  though  it  will  be 
safer  to  sow  some  inoculating  soil  with  the  seed  and 
immensely  profitable  to  sow  some  phosphorus  with 
it  as  well. 

Lime  usually  helps  bluegrass  and  carbonate  of 
lime  or  unburned  ground  limestone  is  the  best  sort 
of  lime  to  choose  when  it  is  to  be  had. 

Alfalfa  and  Orchard  Grass. — Orchard  grass  grows 
well  with  alfalfa  and  the  mixture  of  the  two  makes 
much  forage  and  good  hay.  It  is  not  so  palatable 
a  grass  as  brome  grass,  but  is  easily  established  and 
really  its  forage  is  better  than  men  believe.  When 
using  orchard  grass  pasture  animals  should  not  at 
the  same  time  have  run  of  a  pasture  of  a  different 
grass;  then  they  will  eat  the  orchard  grass  very 


276  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

well.  The  taste  of  alfalfa  gives  them  more  appetite 
for  orchard  grass  too.  Orchard  grass  does  not  run 
and  thicken  up  as  does  Kentucky  bluegrass  and 
brome  grass  and  will  not  so  soon  crowd  out  the 
alfalfa. 

English  bluegrass  (Festuca  elaitor)  is  the  tall 
fescue  grass  growing  from  2  to  4  feet  high,  and  is 
a  nutritious  grass,  and  animals  like  it.  It  mixes 
admirably  with  alfalfa  when  it  is  to  be  grazed.  It 
does  not  spread  rapidly  and  in  fact  is  not  in  its 
prime  for  several  years  after  sowing.  It  thrives  on 
the  dry  prairie  lands  of  Kansas  and  Nebraska.  It 
may  be  that  there  is  no  better  grass  for  mixing  with 
alfalfa  than  this.  It  has  no  bad  qualities  that  the 
writer  has  seen. 


GROWING  BY  IRRIGATION. 

Alfalfa  is  a  desert  plant  and  thrives  best  when  un- 
der desert  conditions — dry,  clear  air,  plenty  of  sun 
and  much  moisture  applied  by  means  of  irrigation 
water.  All  the  greatest  alfalfa  growing  regions  in  the 
world  are  irrigated  countries.  The  great  civilizations 
of  the  world  first  grew  up  in  arid  regions  where  men 
must  irrigate  or  perish.  It  is  a  curious  fact  that  civil- 
ization, and  especially  organized  communal  civiliza- 
tion, did  not  first  spring  up  in  rainy  lands,  where 
one  would  think  that  life  would  be  easiest,  but  in 
the  dry,  burning,  half -desert  lands,  such  as  Persia, 
Babylonia,  Egypt,  and  in  our  own  land  in  Arizona 
and  New  Mexico  and  Colorado.  In  these  old  dry 
lands  where  men  must  toil  to  make  dams  and  canals, 
to  distribute  water  and  rescue  plants  from  death  by 
thirst,  there  grew  up  cities  and  civilizations  per- 
taining to  cities ;  there  stood  the  farm  house  of  sun- 
dried  bricks,  alike  in  Babylon  and  in  Arizona ;  there 
stood  the  communal  mass  of  dwellings,  the  palaces; 
there  developed  written  language,  priesthood,  civic 
conscience,  communal  spirit  and  the  genius  of 
organization  that  brought  to  its  present-day  develop- 
ment has  girded  the  world  with  steel  bands,  built 
great  cities,  canals,  railways,  steamships  and  all  the 
modern  machinery  of  a  complex  life  of  civilization. 
The  forest-dwelling  man  in  a  land  where  it  rained 
seemed  to  have  things  all  his  own  way.  He  dwelt 

(277) 


278  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

apart  from  his  fellow  men,  he  learned  independence, 
nor  ever  developed  much  of  the  spirit  of  interde- 
pendence that  came  with  the  man  living  where  ir- 
rigation was  practiced. 

After  all,  in  the  long  run,  the  forest-dweller  over- 
threw the  civilizations  developed  by  irrigation,  and 
now  in  the  marvelous  shifting  of  peoples  of  these 
frantic  days  we  find  Dane  and  Norwegian,  Scot  and 
Yankee,  all  jostling  each  other  in  the  arid  West, 
learning  the  ancient  and  honorable  art  of  guiding 
water  over  a  thirsty  land,  learning  to  redeem  des- 
erts, to  replace  sage  brush  with  alfalfa,  cactus  flow- 
ers with  roses;  to  make  grapes  grow  where  thorns 
were  yesterday. 

Fertility  of  Irrigated  Lands. — Irrigated  lands 
have  all  the  advantages  after  all,  for  they  are  so 
fertile.  Lands  where  rain  falls  have  been  leached 
for  centuries  of  their  lime,  of  their  potash,  of  their 
phosphorus.  Desert  lands  have  all  their  mineral 
wealth  yet  untouched.  No  matter  if  they  look  gray 
and  infertile,  just  moisten  them,  sow  the  seed,  and 
watch  the  miracle  unfold.  Soon  overspreads  the 
arid  dusty  plain  a  tender  green.  Little  shining 
streams  course  between  furrows,  the  hard  clods  melt, 
the  earth  gives  up  of  its  treasures,  the  green  deepens, 
thickens.  A  meadow  has  come ;  it  blooms,  bees  hum, 
butterflies  play  in  the  sunlight,  humming  birds  seek 
the  nectar  of  the  bloom,  along  the  cool  depths  of  the 
placid  canal  trees  spring  up,  a  little  house  is  soon 
hidden  with  fruit  trees,  alfalfa  stacks  hide  the  corral, 
the  desert  is  forgotten. 


GROWING   BY   IRRIGATION.  279 

Irrigation  is  the  modern  miracle  of  the  West  and 
Southwest.  It  has  built  railways  and  towns  and 
cities  and  states.  And  the  first  thing  to  follow  the 
irrigator's  shovel  is  the  alfalfa  plant. 

Alfalfa  Loves  Desert  Soils. — Alfalfa  loves  new 
desert  soils.  They  are  not  always  fertile  to  the 
touch  of  wheat  or  maize  or  potatoes.  Sometimes 
indeed  they  spurn  such  things  and  the  poor  settler 
would  be  in  sorry  plight  were  it  not  for  alfalfa. 
Nearly  all  desert  soils  love  alfalfa.  After  it  has 
grown  for  a  time,  then  will  grow  grain  or  beets  or 
vines  or  orchards  or  any  other  good  things. 

The  only  desert  soils  that  refuse  to  grow  alfalfa 
are  those  that  have  in  them  too  much  of  a  good 
thing,  too  much  alkali — that  is,  too  much  of  sulphate 
of  soda,  carbonate  of  soda  and  other  salts.  Even 
these  soils  can  be  brought  into  alfalfa  by  right  man- 
agement. Drainage  with  tiles  laid  deep  under  the 
ground  will  drain  off  the  excess  of  alkalies;  some- 
times they  can  be  freed  of  injurious  excess  by  flood- 
ing over  the  surface  and  dissolving  and  washing 
away  the  excess  of  alkalies  that  have  risen  to  the 
surface  by  the  evaporation  of  the  soil  water. 

It  is  simply  marvelous  what  desert  land  will  do 
after  alfalfa  has  grown  on  it.  The  writer  has  seen 
potatoes  grown  after  alfalfa  in  the  valleys  of  Utah 
yielding  as  much  as  1,000  bushels  per  acre.  Wheat 
on  alfalfa  sod  in  the  San  Luis  valley  of  Colorado 
has  yielded  more  than  100  bushels  per  acre. 

Alfalfa  in  Arid  Agriculture. — Alfalfa  is  the 
foundation  stone  of  all  the  agriculture  of  the  arid 


280  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

West.  Alfalfa  hay  feeds  the  teams,  the  stock  mares 
and  foals,  the  family  cow,  the  calves,  pigs,  bees, 
poultry.  In  Utah  at  one  time  half  the  Mormon 
population  in  certain  southern  valleys  was  saved 
from  starvation  by  the  use  of  alfalfa  greens  in 
early  spring,  before  gardens  could  be  grown,  and 
after  a  season  of  grasshoppers  the  year  previous. 
The  writer  can  testify  that  alfalfa  greens  are  good ; 
nothing  is  any  better,  cooked  as  one  cooks  spinach, 
taken  when  fresh  and  tender  and  growing  rapidly. 

Starting  Alfalfa  loy  Irrigation. — There  are  various 
soils  in  the  irrigated  sections  and  each  may  need  a 
somewhat  different  treatment.  Soils  differ  im- 
mensely in  their  physical  character  and  in  their 
slope,  and  regularity  of  slope  as  well.  I  can  not 
here  give  all  that  I  know  should  be  given  to  the  sub- 
ject of  irrigation  of  alfalfa.  Alfalfa  should  be  pre- 
pared for  irrigation  in  such  a  way  that  the  water 
can  be  put  on  in  large  volume,  the  more  the  better, 
so  that  it  will  run  quickly  over  the  field  and  then  all 
of  it  drain  away.  This  can  be  accomplished  in  one 
way  on  one  soil  and  with  one  slope,  another  way  on 
a  different  soil  and  on  a  different  slope. 

Irrigation  by  Contour  Levees. — There  are  lands  in 
California  so  level  and  irregular  in  contour  that  the 
most  practicable  system  is  to  flood  them  all  over. 
To  do  this  long  dams  or  levees  are  built  up,  running 
along  contour  or  level  lines.  Each  levee  is  so  high 
that  when  the  water  is  turned  in  above  it  fills  that 
part  of  the  field  till  it  has  backed  up  to  the  foot  of 
the  next  levee  above.  Thus  it  makes  a  little  lake  all 


GROWING   BY  IRRIGATION.  281 

over  the  field.  When  it  has  soaked  for  an  hour  or 
day,  according  to  the  soil  and  the  season,  the  gate  is 
opened  and  all  the  water  not  absorbed  by  the  soil  is 
rapidly  run  off  to  the  check  below  which  is  filled  in 
like  manner.  After  this  is  soaked  well  the  water 
passes  in  rotation  to  the  next  lower  check,  or  if  a 
number  'of  them  are  filled  at  one  time  passes  again 
into  the  canal  and  on  down  to  'another  field  at  a  lower 
level. 

This  is  the  system  of  irrigation  by  contours.  It  is 
not  a  good  system  when  the  land  has  a,  strong  slope, 
as  it  is  evident  that  all  the  levees  would  have  to1  be 
very  high  and  very  close  together,  thus  the  field 
wo-uld  be  much  cut  up  and  of  irregular  shape.  But 
where  there  is  slight  fall,  say  of  6"  to  100'  and  where 
the  land  is  not  of  a  very  smooth  surface  it  is  a  very 
got)d  way. 

Land  may  be  irrigated  very  rapidly  and  at  slight 
expense  and  labor  when  once  laid  out  in  contour  ter- 
races or  checks.  One  laborer  can  turn  the  water,  no 
matter  how  large  the  volume,  into  the  upper  check, 
may  watch  it  until  that  has  soaked  long  enough,  then 
may  open  the  way  for  the  water  to  flow  into  the  next 
check  below.  It  is  the  best  system  when  the  land  is 
infested  with  ground  squirrels  or  gophers.  They 
are  all  forced  to  leave  their  burrows  and  come  out 
where  they  can  be  destroyed. 

There*  are  a  few  well-defined  principles  that  ought 
to  be  borne  in  mind  in  laying  out  land  with  these 
contours  for  flooding.  The  contours  should  not  be 
too  far  apart,  else  the  dams  or  levees  will  need  be 


282  ALFALFA   FARMING     IN    AMERICA. 

too  high  and  strong  and  the  water  will  be  ponded  too 
long  in  a  check.  There  ought  to  be  no  more  than 
about  12"  difference  in  the  levels  of  the  upper  and 
lower  sides  of  these  contours.  The  earth  for  mak- 
ing the  levee  should  all  be  taken  from  below  it.  This 
will  avoid  making  the  inequality  of  the  land  more 
than  it  need  be.  The  levees  ought  to  be  strong,  high, 
at  least  6"  higher  than  ever  needed,  and  better  if  12", 
and  of  easy  slope  so  that  the  mower  can  run  over 
each  one  and  thus  save  what  alfalfa  may  grow 
thereon  and  at  the  same  time  prevent  weeds  growing. 

There  should  be  large  volume  of  water,  so  that 
the  checks  may  be  rapidly  filled.  A  small  stream 
will  not  serve  at  all  since  it  will  put  water  on  the 
lower  parts  of  the  checks  long  before  it  will  reach 
the  upper  sides,  and  thus  one  part  of  the  field  will 
get  too  much  water  while  the  other  part  will  get  not 
enough.  If  only  a  small  stream  of  water  is  available 
the  land  should  be  prepared  for  flooding  rather  than 
for  ponding,  or  preferably  be  irrigated  by  the  fur- 
row method,  if  the  stream  is  very  small. 

Irrigation  ~by  tlie  Furrow  Method. — This  is 
adapted  to  certain  types  of  soil  that  soak  well.  On 
coarse,  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  it  will  not  serve, 
since  the  water  sinks  and  will  not  penetrate  side- 
ways very  far.  Nor  will  it  serve  well  in  hard  clays, 
since  there  it  penetrates  too  slowly.  It  is  in  good, 
loamy  soils  that  the  furrow  method  works  best. 
There  furrows  6'  apart,  or  even  at  wider  distances, 
will  moisten  all  the  land  between  them.  The  furrows 
ought  to  flow  nearly  in  a  direct  line  down  the  slope, 


GROWING   BY   IRRIGATION.  283 

since  if  they  run  in  a  direction  across  the  slope  there 
will  be  danger  of  their  filling  and  the  water  fail 
of  reaching  the  points  aimed  at.  The  furrow  method 
will  do  more  with  a  small  amount  of  water  than  any 
other  except  subirrigation  by  means  of  tiles. 

The  Flooding  System. — The  most  common  way  of 
irrigating  alfalfa  in  our  West  is  by  flooding.  To 
prepare  land  for  this  system  one  puts  in  ditches  on 
contour  lines,  the  upper  one  to  bring  water  to  the 
field,  below  another  to  catch  the  waste  water  and 
collect  it  for  the  part  of  the  field  below. 

The  distance  apart  of  these  head  ditches,  as  they 
are  called,  is  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  soil, 
slope  and  the  amount  of  water  to  be  had.  Usually  if 
they  are  from  400'  to  1,000'  apart  it  will  be  well, 
with  an  average  distance  perhaps  of  about  500'. 
Much  here  depends  on  the  nature  of  the  soil.  There 
are  soils  where  it  is  well  to  have  these  ditches  as 
near  as  200'  feet  or  even  closer  together.  Much 
of  course  depends  upon  the  head  available.  If  there 
is  not  much  head  the  leading  ditches  should  be  closer 
than  if  there  is  a  flood  of  water.  The  ditches  while 
following  contour  lines  rather  closely  ought  to  have 
enough  fall  so  that  the  water  will  flow  freely  in  them. 

Preparing  the  Land  for  Flooding. — The  contour 
ditch  is  made  first,  strong,  with  a  good  bank.  Be- 
low it  a  lesser  ditch,  close  up ;  this  to  distribute  the 
water.  The  field  should  be  leveled  as  well  as  pos- 
sible. Upon  this  leveling  will  depend  a  lot  of  the 
later  success  or  failure  of  the  alfalfa.  Work  in  mak- 
ing the  land  level  is  work  well  spent.  It  should  next 


284  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

be  plowed  deeply  and  made  mellow.  It  is  then  laid 
off  in  furrows  parallel  to  each  other  and  spaced  ac- 
cording to  the  soil  from  12"  to  2'  or  3'  apart.  Vari- 
ous implements  are  in  use  for  opening  these  furrows. 
It  is  often  done  with  a  common  plow,  making  rather 
shallow  furrows  as  close  together  as  may  be  neces- 
sary, or  a  special  implement  with  several  large 
shovels  affixed  to  a  frame  is  used;  this  opens  fur- 
rows exactly  parallel.  A  roller  with  ridges  turned 
to  fit  the  furrows  sometimes  follows  these  plow 
shovels  and  makes  very  smooth,  even  furrows  down 
which  water  may  flow  very  nicely. 

The  reader  may  wonder  why  these  furrows  are 
made  if  the  land  is  to  be  flooded.  It  can  not  be 
flooded  until  the  alfalfa  is  well  established. 

Sowing  Alfalfa  on  Irrigable  Land. — The  next 
thing  to  consider  is  sowing  the  seed  and  getting  a 
stand.  Here  one  may  as  well  foTget  all  that  he  has 
known  of  alfalfa  in  the  East.  None  of  the  condi- 
tions are  the  same.  In  the  arid  regions  one  need  not 
trouble  to  inoculate;  as  a  rule  inoculation  comes  of 
itself,  we  do  not  know  how.  He  can  sow  in  the  early 
spring  to  good  advantage;  later  the  sun  is  rather 
hot  and  irrigation  more  difficult,  though  if  that  can 
be  effected  it  is  as  well  to  sow  late  as  early. 

Fertilization  is  unknown,  as  the  desert  soils  are 
rich  already  in  lime,  some  of  them  having  in  them 
as  much  as  4  per  cent  of  carbonate  of  lime,  or  as 
much  as  75  tons  to  the  acre  in  the  top  foot  of  soil 
alone.  They  are  also  rich  in  phosphorus,  in  potash, 
in  nearly  everything  that  alfalfa  desires. 


GROWING   BY   IRRIGATION.  285 

In  hard  alkali  clays,  hgwever,  I  found  it  very  use- 
ful to  mulch  the  land  carefully  with  a  thin  layer  of 
manure  when  starting  alfalfa.  This  shades  the  land 
and  prevents  the  forming  of  an  alkaline  crust  that 
would  destroy  the  young  seedlings.  After  the  al- 
falfa had  become  strong  enough  to  shade  the  land  it 
grew  well  with  numerous  irrigations,  needing  water 
oftener  to  keep  it  thrifty  on  these  clays  than  on  more 
open  sandy  soils. 

After  the  land  is  leveled  it  is  well  to  soak  it  thor- 
oughly. This  may  be  done  by  making  temporary 
furrows  which  need  not  be  so  carefully  made  as  the 
permanent  ones  will  be.  It  may  be  filled  with  water 
before  it  is  plowed,  and  again  watered  after  plowing, 
if  it  has  much  dried  out.  Then  give  the  final  level- 
ing and  make  the  last  set  of  permanent  furrows. 
These  furrows  should  go  straight  down  the  slope. 

The  seed  should  now  be  sown  broadcast.  If  sown 
at  once  as  soon  as  the  furrows  are  made  it  is  likely 
that  it  will  need  no  covering,  since  the  wetting  will 
make  the  earth  crumble  enough  to  cover  the  seeds. 
Or  if  it  is  a  soil  that  will  not  crumble  the  land  may 
be  brushed  with  a  brush  harrow  which  will  cover 
the  seeds  deeply  enough. 

Next  the  water  is  turned  in,  and  here  lies  all  the 
secret  of  success  after  all.  Can  any  man  tell  another 
on  paper  how  to  irrigate  young  alfalfa  for  the  first 
time?  If  now  one  can  find  an  old  experienced  Mor- 
mon irrigator  he  will  find  him  worth  nearly  his 
weight  in  gold. 

The  First  Irrigation. — The  principle  of  the  thing 


286  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

is  to  turn  out  a  part  of  the  stream  in  the  large  cross 
or  head  ditch,  letting  it  into  the  lesser  ditch  below. 
This  ditch  has  been  carefully  opened  into  each  fur- 
row. Now  the  water  is  to  be  carefully  divided,  so 
that  each  furrow  will  have  its  share  and  not  a  drop 
more.  There  is  needed  the  least  trickling  stream  in 
each  furrow.  If  too  much  is  turned  in  the  land  will 
wash,  the  seed  be  carried  away,  the  land  spoiled  for 
later  irrigations.  If  too  little  is  turned  in  it  will  not 
reach  through  the  rows.  Thus  the  lower  end  of 
the  field  will  make  a  poor  stand.  It  should  be  so 
regulated  that  in  about  24  hours  water  will  be 
trickling  through  each  row  at  the  lower  end  and  run- 
ning clear,  with  no  cutting  or  washing  anywhere.  In 
some  hot  countries  it  is  well  to  leave  the  water  flow 
till  the  plants  are  germinated  and  rooted.  In  other 
lands  to  soak  well  once  will  suffice  to  bring  the  al- 
falfa up,  and  it  will  root  and  grow  for  some  weeks 
with  the  water  already  stored  in  the  soil. 

Nurse  Crops  in  Irrigated  Regions. — As  a  rule  it 
is  better  to  use  no  nurse  crop  when  sowing  alfalfa 
in  the  dry  country.  I  have  sown  with  oats,  however, 
and  secured  a  fairly  good  stand.  I  have  known  it  to 
be  sown  with  spring  wheat  with  good  results.  It  is 
usually  better,  however,  to  sow  alone. 

How  Often  to  Irrigate. — Usually  once  the  alfalfa 
is  up  well  it  is  good  to  let  it  get  somewhat  dry 
before  giving  the  second  irrigation.  This  sends  the 
roots  down  well  and  to  a  degree  deters  the  growth 
of  weeds.  The  alfalfa  ought  never  to  suffer  seri- 
ously for  water  before  it  is  given,  however. 


GROWING   BY   IRRIGATION.  287 

The  second  irrigation  is  much  more  easily  given 
than  the  first.  More  water  may  be  used  and  there 
will  be  less  danger  of  washing.  The  little  alfalfa 
plants  check  the  flow  of  the  water  and  distribute  it. 
The  land  soaks  better  too.  When  it  needs  the  third 
irrigation  usually  a  good  deal  more  water  may  be 
turned  in  with  no  danger  of  wasting.  Finally  when 
the  plants  are  strong  and  branched  and  the  crop  has 
been  once  mown  off  one  may  turn  a  young  river  over 
the  field  with  no  harm. 

The  practice  then  is  to  turn  out  all  in  one  place  a 
strong  stream,  and  let  it  flow  till  it  has  reached  the 
cross  ditch  below,  then  shutting  off  the  flow  at  that 
place  to  open  it  a  little  further  along  the  ditch.  It  is 
allowed  to  flow  in  at  this  point  till  that  strip  is 
soaked,  when  it  is  again  moved  farther  across  the 
field,  and  so  on  till  all  the  land  is  wet. 

These  heavy  irrigations  cause  the  furrows  to  level 
up  a  great  deal,  so  that  a  field  that  seemed  rough 
and  ridged  for  mowing  will  be  all  right  after  being 
flooded  a  time  o/r  two  and  one  will  even  wish  that 
he  had  made  his  furrows  deeper  and  the  ridges  more 
pronounced  if  he  has  not  his  land  well  leveled.  This 
is  the  system  in  almost  universal  use  in  our  western 
states. 

When  to  Irrigate. — Alfalfa  should  never  be  al- 
lowed to  get  very  dry  in  winter  time.  It  is  well  to 
irrigate  thoroughly  late  in  the  fall,  when  it  will  go 
through  winter  in  good  condition.  Watering  it  in 
winter  will  not  do  any  harm  if  the  soil  is  pervious, 
and  any  excess  of  moisture  can  readily  drain  away. 


288  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

In  fact  winter  irrigation  is  often  a  very  good  thing. 
It  saves  water,  for  one  thing,  that  might  otherwise 
be  lost  for  lack  of  storage,  and  no  one  ever  heard  of 
there  being  enough  water  to  satisfy  all  needs  in 
summer  time. 

Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  let  the  alfalfa 
be  flooded  in  cold  weather,  which  might  cover  over 
the  crowns  and  freeze  into  a  solid  sheet  of  ice  which 
would  destroy  the  plants  entirely.  In  truth  in  ir- 
rigated regions  there  is  no  easier  way  of  destroying 
alfalfa  than  to  let  it  be  flooded  in  winter  and  freeze 
solid  to  the  ground.  This  makes  it  much  easier 
plowing  in  the  spring. 

Alfalfa  does  not  want  to  be  too  wet  when  growth 
starts  in  spring,  since  that  makes  the  ground  cold 
and  retards  growth.  One  or  two  waterings  will 
usually  be  sufficient  before  the  first  crop  is  cut. 

It  is  usually  well  to  water  alfalfa  shortly  before 
cutting,  as  this  starts  off  the  second  crop  promptly 
and  vigorously.  In  irrigated  lands  one  should  get 
the  hay  off  the  land  as  quickly  as  he  can,  since 
growth  is  usually  very  prompt  and  very  rapid  after 
cutting.  One  watering  when  the  crop  is  about  half 
grown  is  usually  advisable.  Here,  of  course,  one 
must  be  governed  by  his  soil  and  water  supply,  and 
somewhat  by  climate  as  well.  There  are  soils  that 
respond  to  double  the  water  that  other  soils  require. 
Loose  sandy  or  gravelly  soils  will  use  vast  amounts 
of  water,  and  when  this  can  be  given  the  yield  may 
be  splendid. 

As  a  rule  the  yield  of  hay  is  nearly  proportioned 


GROWING  BY   IRRIGATION.  289 

to  the  amount  of  water  available.  A  yield  of  6  tons 
per  acre  actually  needs  30  inches  of  water  an<J  cer- 
tainly there  will  be  some  loss  by  evaporation  from 
the  surface  of  the  soil  and  by  percolation  through 
into  the  subsoil.  The  Utah  Agricultural  Experi- 
ment Station  in  co-operation  with  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  made  numerous  tests  of 
water  used,  with  varying  amounts  and  varying  fre- 
quency of  application.  Briefly,  it  was  learned  that 
frequent  applications  gave  much  larger  returns  than 
infrequent,  and  that  the  yield  was  somewhat  directly 
in  proportion  to  the  amount  used. 

RESULTS  OF  EXPERIMENTS  IN  IRRIGATING  ALFALFA  IN  UTAH. 

Inches  of  water  Number  of  Yield  per  acre, 

applied.  irrigations.  in  tons. 
17.058                                           3  3.125 

17.33  4  3.468 

24.97  4  6.017 

25.002  2  1.55 

61.465  12  6.243 

Penetration  of  Roots  in  Irrigated  Soils. — Soils  in 
the  arid  regions  are  quite  unlike  those  of  humid 
regions.  There  is  often  little  difference  in  physical 
texture  or  fertility  between  the  surface  soil  and  sub- 
soil. Furthermore  they  are  usually  more  permeable 
than  soils  in  humid  regions ;  both  water  and  air  can 
enter  them  readily.  Thus  alfalfa  roots  penetrate  to 
great  depths  in  such  soils.  Roots  have  been  traced 
to  a  depth  of  30'  and  even  farther.  And  all  down 
in  that  soil  will  be  found  air,  nodules,  bacteria;  it 
is  a  vast  factory  of  nitrogen-gathering,  wonderwork- 
ing plant  life.  No  wonder  the  "  deserts  blossom  as 
the  rose"  when  water  is  applied  to  them. 

Grassing  the  Ditch  Banks. — It  is  a  convenience  to 


290  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

have  ditch  banks  covered  with  sod.  This  prevents 
their  washing  away  from  too  great  heads  of  water 
and  facilitates  irrigation.  Brome  grass  is  good  for 
this  purpose,  or  Kentucky  bluegrass. 

Alfalfa  Growing  and  Irrigation  in  Mexico. — The 
following  letter  from  Alf  Kessler,  once  of  Utah, 
now  of  southern  Coahuila,  Mexico,  is  interesting  as 
showing  the  progress  of  alfalfa  culture  in  our  sister 
Republic : 

When  I  was  very  young,  in  the  small  seventies,  about  the  first 
things  that  happened  that  made  an  impression  on  my  mind  were 
the  Chicago  fire,  the  killing  of  Jim  Fisk  and  the  planting  and 
growing  of  alfalfa  in  Utah  (and  as  everybody  knows,  Utah  was 
the  first  territory  to  be  successfully  reclaimed  by  irrigation).  I 
have  been  in  the  thick  of  the  conflict  from  the  beginning  to  the 
present  time,  and  since  I  have  become  grown,  have  traveled  all 
over  the  principal  western  country  from  Kansas  City  to  the 
Pacific,  and  from  northern  Alberta  to  Southern  Coahuila,  Mex., 
where  I  am  at  present  engaged  in  raising  alfalfa.  I  have  care- 
fully studied  alfalfa  conditions  wherever  I  have  been  and  this 
beats  them  all  for  raising  the  weed,  as  the  natives  call  it. 

First  in  selecting  a  locality  for  raising  alfalfa  here,  be  sure 
that  you  have  plenty  of  water;  then  pick  land  that  is  on  the 
order  of  a  nice  deep  sandy  loam  with  not  too  much  alkali;  it 
all  hay  enough  lime;  then  plow  it  good  and  deep,  level  nicely, 
and  be  sure  it  is  level  to  save  future  trouble,  but  should  have 
a  gentle  slope,  and  sow  16  Ibs.  of  seed  per  acre  broadcast  with 
machine.  This  we  find  sufficient.  Then  we  irrigate  in  the  fur- 
row system.  To  make  these  furrows  we  have  what  we  call  a 
drum  roller.  The  drum  part  is  about  36"  high,  and  with  two 
plows  (Center  Busters)  26"  apart  from  center  to  center,  at- 
tached just  ahead  of  the  roller.  It  has  also  two  flanges  the 
same  distance  apart  which  fit  the  plow  furrow  and  leaves  your 
small  drills  or  ditches  26"  apart  up  and  down  over  the  whole 
field.  Then  we  cross-ditch  the  field  and  leave  these  small  ditches, 
or  irrigation  furrows,  600'  long  and  you  are  ready  for  the  water. 
This  takes  some  patience  for  the  first  few  irrigations,  or  until 
the  alfalfa  is  up  about  6"  high  and  well  started  all  your  trouble 
is  at  an  end.  In  your  first  few  irrigations  be  careful  and  not 
use  too  much  water,  in  fact,  just  as  little  as  will  run  through 


GROWING   BY  IRRIGATION. 


291 


the  600',  and  it  should  come  out  below  clear.  If  muddy,  you 
are  cutting  the  land  somewhere  down  the  line,  and  losing  some 
of  your  seed,  besides  putting  the  land  in  bad  condition  for  your 
mowers.  The  land  should  be  irrigated  until  it  looks  black,  which 
it  will  with  sub-irrigation  from  one  furrow  to  another;  then 
keep  it  nice  and  moist  so  that  the  seed  will  all  sprout  and  come 
up.  If  old  land  is  used  there  may  be  trouble  with  weeds,  which 


IRRIGATING   ALFALFA  IN  MEXICO. 

will  have  to  be  mown  off,  and  if  this  is  not  sufficient,  they  will 
have  to  be  pulled  out  by  hand.  In  irrigating  always  irrigate 
enough  to  keep  the  leaves  wide  and  a  beautiful  green  color. 
Should  they  look  a  dusty  color  and  a  little  pinched,  they  lack 
water  and  the  alfalfa  will  soon  bud  and  bloom,  perhaps  6"  or 
8"  high,  where  if  given  sufficient  water  your  alfalfa  will  grow 
at  the  rate  of  an  inch  a  day,  and  be  ready  to  cut  when  about 
one-fourth  or  one-half  in  bloom,  about  every  thirty-five  or 


292  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

forty  days  after  the  alfalfa  gets  into  the  producing  stage.  A 
mistake  may  be  made  and  too  much  water  given  it.  In  that 
case  it  will  stop  growing,  turn  yellow  and  have  small  brown 
spots  on  the  leaves.  Stop  irrigating;  cut  once  in  eight  or  ten 
days  for  two  or  three  times;  irrigate  quickly  and  not  let  the 
water  stay  on  too  long  and  it  will  come  out  all  right  again. 

We  have  about  400  acres  in  alfalfa  here  and  it  is  doing  fine 
except  where  we  have  dry  spells  and  run  short  of  water.  We 
have  had  some  of  the  leading  men  of  the  Republic  here  to  look 
at  our  work,  besides  Prof.  Alfred  Burbank  of  California  and 
others.  They  all  congratulate  us  on  our  success,  and  have  no 
fault  to  find.  In  curing  the  hay,  we  cut  it  one  day,  rake  and 
cock  it  the  next,  then  leave  it  in  the  field  to  cure  a  day  or  two 
according  to  the  weather.  We  put  it  in  the  stack  just  a  little 
moist  and  use  a  little  salt,  about  10  Ibs.  per  ton.  This  keeps 
it  a  nice  green  color,  and  it  holds  its  leaves  when  baling.  But 
should  the  weather  be  damp  or  misty,  we  put  it  in  the  stack 
dry. 

These  Mexicans  all  want  to  irrigate  under  the  contour  sys- 
tem, but  by  so  doing  they  flood  the  entire  surface  of  the  ground, 
and  the  sun  is  so  hot  here  that  the  land  bakes  hard  so  that  the 
young  plants  cannot  come  through,  or  very  few  of  them.  Then 
they  want,  to  continue  ponding  the"  water,  which  should  always 
be  avoided,  for  the  hot  sun  soon  makes  the  water  warm  enough 
to  scald  the  plants  and  kill  them,  or  the  water  stands  too  long 
and  drowns  them,  and  turns  the  meadow  into  grass  and  weeds 
and  then  they  say,  the  peons,  "We  don't  want  alfalfa  anyway." 
But  people  here  with  energy  do  want  alfalfa,  and  everything 
else. 

About  here  this  alfalfa  will  grow  36"  in  thirty  days,  and  start 
to  bloom  nicely  if  cut  at  that  stage.  It  can  be  cut  eight  or  nine 
times  a  year,  but  if  let  stand  a  little  longer  or  until  it  gets  a 
little  more  firm  it  will  have  more  food  value,  and  produce  more 
tons  of  dry  hay.  By  doing  this  it  can  be  cut  easily  six  times 
a  year,  and  the  plants  can  rest  through  the  months  of  Decem- 
ber, January  and  February.  In  the  first  instance  we  cut  a  little 
over  a  ton,  and  the  second  about  two  tons  per  acre,  each  cut- 
ting. The  hay  is  baled  on  the  ranch.  We  have  an  engine  and 
steel  press,  and  the  hay  is  sold  in  Torreon,  Monterey  and  the 
different  cities  and  is  usually  worth  about  $40  or  $50  per  ton 
(silver)  by  the  car  load,  but  recently  it  brought  $75,  single  ton 
at  Filipinas. 


TIME  OF  GUTTING. 

Alfalfa  ought  to  be  cut  whenever  it  needs  cutting, 
whether  in  meadow  or  pasture.  It  is  the  life  of  al- 
falfa to  cut  it  now  and  then.  It  disappears  and  is  re- 
placed by  other  plants  in  eastern  soils  when  not  cut 
occasionally.  In  the  west  this  is  not  so  true,  yet  in 
almost  any  region  alfalfa  is  healthier  and  better  to 
be  cut  now  and  then. 

Time  to  Cut. — One  knows  that  alfalfa  needs  cut- 
ting when  he  sees  a  cessation  of  growth,  an  appear- 
ance of  bloom,  a  dropping  off  of  the  lower  leaves  and 
especially  when  he  notes  shooting  out  near  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground  small  new  'sprouts  or  buds,  as 
though  the  plant  was  about  to  make  a  new  growth. 
As  soon  as  these  shoots  appear,  cut  the  crop  as 
promptly  as  possible.  The  earlier  it  is  cut  after 
these  shoots  start  the  better  the  hay  will  be  and  the 
more  nutritious,  also  the  stronger  will  be  the  new 
growth.  Thus  the  total  amount  of  forage  produced 
by  a  field  of  alfalfa  is  very  directly  proportioned  to 
the  promptness  with  which  it  is  cut  after  it  is  ready. 

It  has  already  been  pointed  out,  however,  that  it 
is  dangerous  to  mow  alfalfa  too  soon.  To  cut  it 
before  these  basal  -shoots  have  started  may  weaken 
it  and  in  the  case  of  newly-sown  alfalfa  may  also 
destroy  it. 

Bloom  not  a  Test. — One  can  not  safely  judge  of 

(293) 


294  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

the  fitness  for  mowing  by  the  state  of  bloom.  Usu- 
ally when  alfalfa  is  ready  to*  be  cut  it  will  be  partly 
in  bloom.  Sometimes  it  will  be  much  more  ad- 
vanced in  blooming  than  at  other  times.  Some- 
times there  will  be  few  blooms  showing,  and  yet  a 
pronounced  condition  of  readiness  to  be  mown  off. 
Whenever  it  is  ready  to  make  new  growth,  cut  it  as 
promptly  as  you  can,  regardless  of  the  state  of 
bloom. 

It  is  better,  however,  to  cut  it  a  few  days  too  late 
than  a  few  days  too  early,  that  is,  better  for  the  al- 
falfa. 

Late  Cutting  Damaging. — There  is  another  law 
that  sometimes  collides  with  this :  alfalfa  ought  nev- 
er to  be  cut  late  in  the  fall  anywhere  east  of  the 
Missouri  River.  It  very  seriously  weakens  it  to  cut 
it  late  in  the  fall.  There  ought  always  to  be  left  a 
growth  of  alfalfa  at  least  12  inches  high  to  serve  as 
protection  to  the  crowns.  Therefore  it  is  well  to 
cease  cutting  by  the  first  week  in  September,  or 
earlier,  according  to  climatic  conditions.  It  takes 
some  nerve  to  do  this  at  first.  One  may  leave  in 
the  field  a  ton  of  hay  to  the  acre  sometimes.  He 
will  get  so  much  finer  alfalfa  with  so  much  less 
death  of  individual  plants  in  it  the  next  year  that  he 
will  be  glad  however. 

The  First  Cutting. — Along  the  40th  parallel  one 
can  cut  alfalfa  usually  about  June  1  and  find  it  in 
prime  condition ;  sometimes  it  may  be  cut  a  week  or 
two  earlier.  It  is  essential  to  get  this  first  cutting 


TIME  OF   CUTTING.  295 

off  as  promtly  as  possible  when  once  it  is  ready. 
I.  D.  O'Donnell,  Billings,  Mont.,  is  so  impressed 
with  this  truth  that  he  mows  down  400  acres  at  one 
clip  when  it  is  time  to  mow  it  down  for  the  first 
cutting.'  As  he  has  little  or  no  rain  to  trouble  him 
he  can  do  this  without  fear.  Once  cut  down  he 
hustles  to  get  it  off  the  field  as  soon  as  he  can.  Thus 
his  second  crop  comes  on  quickly. 

The  Second  Cutting. — Supposing  the  first  crop  to 
be  mown  off  June  1,  the  next  crop  will  be  ready  in 
about  30  to  36  days.  When  weather  conditions  are 
good  it  will  be  ready  in  30  days.  Say  the  second 
crop  is  taken  off  July  4,  the  third  crop  will  be  slower 
to  mature  because  of  hot  and  dry  weather;  it  may 
come  off  in  45  days  or  by  Aug.  20.  It  is  probable, 
however,  that  if  there  is  a  large  amount  of  alfalfa 
to  make  into  hay  one  will  not  find  it  possible  to  do 
it  all  as  promptly  as  he  would  like,  so  that  it  will  be 
the  first  of  September  or  a  little  later  when  the 
third  cutting  is  taken  off.  This  will  not  permit  a 
safe  removal  of  a  fourth  cutting. 

No  Universal  Rule. — No  rule  of  universal  appli- 
cation can  be  laid  down.  Almost  anywhere  in  Amer- 
ica it  can  be  cut  three  times.  In  Ontario  it  has 
been  cut  four  times,  though  it  is  probable  that  to  cut 
it  three  times  would  be  better.  There  are  situations 
where  it  will  make  but  two  crops,  where  the  altitude 
is  high.  In  the  state  of  Coahuilla,  Mexico,  where 
I  was  instrumental  in  establishing  a  large  alfalfa- 
growing  hacienda,  it  may  be  cut  every  30  days,  dur- 


296  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

ing  which  time  if  it  has  had  water  enough  it  will 
have  grown  36  inches.  It  may  there  be  cut  eight  or 
nine  times  in  a  year,  but  even  there  it  is  better  to  cut 
it  only  about  six  times  in  a  year,  letting  it  rest  during 
the  months  of  December,  January  and  February.  In 
that  climate  on  suitable  soil  the  yield  is  about  a  ton 
to  each  cutting. 

Let  me  repeat  with  all  possible  emphasis,  in  re- 
gions where  'alfalfa  is  not  very  strong  and  is  apt  to 
winterkill,  do  not  cut  too  late  in  the  fall.  Leave  al- 
ways a  good  growth  to  protect  the  crowns  and  to 
catch  snow.  Do  not  graze  late  in  the  fall. 

Western  readers  will  wonder  at  this  caution.  I 
have  had  2,000  cattle  on  a  90  aicre  alfalfa  meadow 
most  of  the  winter,  coming  and  going,  and  have  seen 
no  injury  in  Utah.  There  the  soil  was  dry,  no  ice 
formed  on  alfalfa  crowns  and  alfalfa  was  markedly 
at  home.  A  similar  treatment  in  Ohio  would  have 
spelled  certain  ruin  to  the  alfalfa. 

Keep  off  the  Fields  in  Winter. — Anywhere  east  of 
the  Missouri  River  it  is  very  bad  practice  to  go  on 
the  fields  at  all  in  winter  with  animals  or  wagons. 
Wherever  horses  tread  or  wheels  go  will  be  lines 
of  dead  or  dying  alfalfa  plants.  The  alfalfa  field 
should  be  a  sacred  place  after  October  and  until 
May,  no  animal  should  be  permitted  to  set  foot 
within  it.  No  matter  just  what  it  is  that  kills  or 
weakens  the  plants,  the  truth  is  so  well  proved  that 
it  admits  of  no  argument;  so  let  us  emphasize  the 
rule  never  under  any  avoidable  circumstance  go 


TIME   OF   CUTTING.  297 

into  an  alfalfa  field  with  wagon  or  animals  in  late 
fall  or  winter  time.  Especially  do  not  let  hogs  run 
on  the  alfalfa  in  winter. 

Winter-killing  of  Alfalfa. — There  are  several 
things  that  destroy  alfalfa  in  winter  time.  One  is 
the  freezing  of  ice  over  the  crowns.  If  this  lies 
close  and  for  some  time  it  will  destroy  the  plants. 
It  is  more  apt  to  do  this  if  the  alfalfa  was  late 
mown.  It  is  not  known  just  why  this  ice  destroys 
the  alfalfa.  When  snows  suddenly  melt  in  Minne- 
sota and  Wisconsin,  finding  the  earth  hard  frozen 
the  water  can  not  sink  down  and  so  freezes  into  a 
glare  of  ice  that  may  destroy  the  alfalfa.  In  that 
case  it  is  best  to  plow,  plant  to  corn  or  some  other 
crop  and  re-seed.  There  is  no  loss  in  one  sense;  it 
only  interferes  with  a  man's  rotation. 

There  is  another  form  of  winter-killing,  that  in 
clay  soils  not  well  drained  when  the  repeated  freez- 
ings and  thawings  lift  the  alfalfa  roots  out  of  the 
soil.  This  may  happen  on  very  good  alfalfa  land. 
On  Woodland  Farm  it  is  a  common  occurrence  for 
a  good  deal  of  alfalfa  to  be  lifted  the  first  winter. 
If  it  goes  through  that  it  will  be  too  well  rooted  to 
be  lifted  very  much  the  second  season. 

The  remedy  is  good  drainage,  deep  plowing,  and 
probably  subsoiling.  These  things  will  take  out 
surface  water  and  also  let  alfalfa  roots  penetrate 
deep  enough  to  be  strong  enough  to  escape  this  lift- 
ing. 

Spreading  with  Manure. — There  is  another  thing 


298  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

that  will  help  and  that  is  to  run  the  manure  spreader 
over  the  land  and  cover  it  lightly  with  manure.  Do 
not  bury  it  too  deep,  though  alfalfa  will  in  the 
spring  come  up  through  quite  a  little  litter.  This 
mulching  should  be  done  in  November,  though  it 
may  be  done  later  if  it  is  not  done  then.  This  is  the 
one  permissible  intrusion  into  an  alfalfa  field,  to 
spread  lightly  over  it  manure  for  protection  of  the 
crowns.  When  I  say  lightly  I  mean  a  layer  thick 
enough  to  cover  the  land  about  so  that  one  can  not 
see  the  earth  through  the  litter.  Some  men's  ideas 
of  a  light  covering  are  airy  in  the  extreme.  This 
manure  will  do  no  harm  in  the  hay  next  season. 
The  rain  will  have  washed  it  clean,  it  will  have  lost 
most  of  its  weight  and  anyway  will  have  settled 
down  so  close  to  the  earth  that  the  rake  will  not 
gather  very  much  of  it.  What  is  taken  up  will  not 
damage  the  hay. 


HARVESTING  HAY  IN  THE  WEST. 

To  make  alfalfa  hay  a  man  needs  wide-cut  mowers, 
a  supply  of  rakes,  forks  and  men,  then  unlimited 
faith  and  hopefulness.  Especially  is  this  true  in  the 
humid  East.  In  the  West  it  is  not  so  much  a  matter 
of  dodging  showers  as  it  is  of  economizing  labor.  In 
the  East  it  is  a  struggle  to  get  the  hay  dry  enough,  in 
the  West  a  struggle  to  keep  it  from  getting  too  dry 
and  thus  losing  its  leaves. 

When  Ready  to  Cut. — Before  starting  the  mowers 
the  farmer  should  get  down  on  his  knees  in  the  field 
and  examine  the  stage  of  growth  of  the  plants.  It 
is  not  possible  to  judge  accurately  by  the  state  of 
bloom  or  any  other  external  sign.  He  must  part 
the  stems  and  look  down  close  to  the  earth  to  see  if 
the  little  shoots  have  formed,  the  shoots  that  sucker 
out  from  the  bases  of  the  stems  and  that  are  to  make 
new  growth.  If  these  shoots,  some  call  them  "buds," 
have  not  appeared,  then  one  takes  risk  of  injuring 
his  second  crop  by  cutting.  He  had  better  as  a  rule 
wait  a  few  days.  It  is  hard  to  explain  the  injury 
that  sometimes  comes  to  alfalfa  when  mown  off  too 
soon.  The  succeeding  crop  may  be  lessened  by  half 
or  more  if  the  alfalfa  is  mown  off  too  early. 

Nor  can  a  man  delay  long  after  these  buds  ap- 
pear without  injuring  his  alfalfa.  This  injury 
comes  from  two  sources:  for  one  thing  the  stems 
become  woody  and  the  leaves  are  lost;  then  the 

(299) 


300  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

shoots  if  they  get  long  will  be  clipped  off  by  the 
mower  and  thus  growth  retarded  again.  So  as  soon 
as  these  basal  shoots  appear  one  should  begin  cut- 
ting. Thus  several  mowers  may  be  a  good  thing. 

The  keynotes  of  success  in  making  alfalfa  hay  in 
the  arid  West  are  to  mow  off  promptly  when  it  is 
time  to  mow;  to  rake  before  the  hay  is  dry  enough 
to  lose  its  leaves;  to  let  it  dry  somewhat  in  the 
windrow  and  then  cock  in  large  cocks,  or  bunch  with 
the  rake  if  labor  is  too  dear  or  scarce  for  hand  cock- 
ing, and  then  to  hurry  it  into  mow  or  stack. 

Alfalfa  leaves  are  worth  about  the  same  as  wheat 
bran,  a  little  more,  in  truth,  and  one  must  struggle 
always  to  manage  so  as  to  save  them ;  therefore  the 
early  raking,  and  also  careful  handling  afterward. 

In  the  arid  West  one  can  bale  alfalfa  hay  right 
from  the  fields  if  he  so  desires.  This  he  can  seldom 
do  in  the  East, 

Curing  for  the  Mow. — A  simple  test  of  dryness 
will  seldom  lead  a  man  astray.  It  is  to  take  a  wisp 
of  the  most  moist  hay  he  can  find  in  the  windrow  or 
cock  and  twist  it  hard  as  one  would  make  a  hay 
rope,  twisting  it  nearly  to  the  breaking  point.  If 
he  can  see  no  moisture  whatever  exude  from  the 
stems  he  may  put  the  hay  up,  no  matter  if  it  is 
tough.  If  any  visible  moisture  exudes  he  had  better 
dry  it  further  else  it  may  mold. 

Making  Green  or  Brown  Hay. — In  the  West  it  is 
often  possible  to  cure  hay  that  will  come  from  the 
mow  or  rick  with  a  lovely  green  color,  as  fresh  and 


HARVESTING   HAY  IN   THE  WEST.  30l 

green  as  it  had  when  growing  in  the  field.  This 
color  can  not  often  be  secured  in  the  East.  When 
hay  is  so  dry  before  put  in  mow  or  stack  that  it  does 
not  heat  nor  steam  the  green  color  will  be  preserved. 
In  order  to  have  this  in  its  perfection  the  hay  should 
not  be  cured  altogether  in  the  sunlight,  nor  ever  ex- 
posed to  dew  or  rain,  but  should  be  cured  in  part  in 
the  swath,  raked  before  the  leaves  crumble,  cured 
somewhat  in  the  windrow  (side  delivery  rakes  are 
best  for  this  purpose)  and  the  curing  process  fin- 
ished in  the  cock. 

This  green  hay  has  a  distinct  market  value.  There 
is  a  demand  for  it  for  horse  feed;  it  has  no  mold  on 
it,  has  not  been  heated,  is  not  dusty  and  is  no  doubt 
the  best  that  could  be  found  for  horses.  It  is  in 
favor  among  eastern  dairymen  because  they  con- 
sider it  the  real  alfalfa.  It  is  really  no  better  for 
cows  than  the  brown  alfalfa,  but  it  often  outsells  it  in 
the  market. 

For  making  into  alfalfa  meal  the  green  alfalfa  is 
far  better  than  the  brown,  because  it  looks  better  in 
the  bag  and  is  recognized  in  the  market  as  being 
the  true  alfalfa  meal.  Thus  it  is  made  up  into  cow 
feed  and  poultry  feed  by  grinding  and  perhaps  mix- 
ing in  some  other  ingredient. 

Also,  and  this  may  seem  like  a  jest,  green  alfalfa 
hay  ground  into  very  fine  meal  has  been  used  to  make 
into  bread,  sweetcake  and  muffins  for  classes  of  col- 
lege boys.  They  have  eaten  of  it  and  declared  it  good, 
have  subsisted  upon  it  and  done  athletic  feats. 


HAYING  TOOLS. 

The  helps  of  the  western  man  who  makes  much 
alfalfa  hay  are  the  wide-cut  mowers,  the  side  deliv- 
ery and  wide  two-horse  rakes,  the  sweep  rakes  that 
gather  the  hay  together  and  carry  it  with  no  handling 
to  the  stack  or  mow  and  the  big  forks  or  slings  that 
by  the  aid  of  derricks  or  pitchers  lift  the  hay  to  the 
stack  top  or  put  it  in  the  barn  with  no  fork  handling 
whatever  till  it  comes  to  hand  of  the  man  in  the  mow, 
or  the  stackers  on  the  stack. 

The  Side  Delivery  Rake. — This  is  a  tool  not  in 
universal  use  as  yet.  It  has  indeed  its  limitations 
and  imperfections.  It  is  slower  to  gather  the  hay 
than  the  wide  two-horse  sulky  rake.  It  is  more  com- 
plicated, so  more  apt  to  get  out  of  order.  It  costs 
more.  On  the  other  hand  it  lcan  do  many  good  things 
that  the  common  rake  cannot  do  at  all.  It  can  sin- 
gle out  and  rake  the  driest  hay,  and  can  turn  it  up 
loosely  so  that  air  can  penetrate  it  and  yet  further 
dry  it.  It  can  be  used  to  turn  these  windrows  over 
if  need  be  to  dry  them  further.  Hay  may  be  cocked 
after  the  side  delivery  rake  to  good  effect,  or  it  may 
be  taken  up  with  the  hay  loader.  On  the  whole,  the 
writer  does  not  see  how  a  farmer  making  much  al- 
falfa hay  can  avoid  using  each  of  these  machines. 
The  side  delivery  rake  when  everything  is  working 
nicely,  weather,  men  and  tools;  the  wide  two-horse 

(302) 


SIDE-DELIVERY  RAKE  (TOP)  AND  HAY  TEDDER  (BOTTOM). 


TWO   STYLES   OF  HAY  LOADERS. 


HAYING   TOOLS.  303 

rake  to  hurry  with  when  showers  are  coming  and 
much  hay  needs  to  go  at  once  into  cock,  or  for 
gleaning  the  field  after  the  hay  has  been  taken  off. 
The  side  delivery  is  not  a  good  rake  for  gleaning. 

The  Hay  Loader. — Concerning  the  usefulness  of 
the  hay  loader  in  the  alfalfa  field  there  may  easily 
be  two  or  more  opinions.  It  saves  labor,  sometimes. 
It  may  crumble  and  waste  the  leaves.  It  may  cause 
the  hay  to  be  left  in  such  shape  that  it  is  ready  to 
take  every  drop  -of  sudden  springing  showers.  This 
is  indeed  the  worst  difficulty  with  the  hay  loader. 
It  cannot  take  hay  up  unless  left  in  the  swath  or 
windrow.  It  is  not  practicable  to  leave  hay  in  the 
swath  for  it  loses  its  leaves  if  exposed  too  long  to 
the  hot  sun.  Windrow  loaders  do  not  sacrifice  so 
many  leaves,  but  the  hay  is  ready  to  be  wet  by  every 
passing  shower.  On  the  other  hand  if  one  wishes 
to  use  ignorant  and  unskilled  labor  to  put  hay  on 
wagons  he  may  find  the  hay  loaders  an  economical 
way  to  get  it  there. 

There  are  various  types  of  hay  loaders.  For  al- 
falfa hay  the  best  have  endless  aprons  or  strap  car- 
riers to  take  up  the  hay.  The  ones  that  push  it  up 
by  aid  of  spiked  wooden  strips  are  not  very  effi- 
cient and  knock  off  many  leaves. 

Siveep  Rakes. — A  better  thing  in  nearly  every  way 
is  the  wide  sweep  rake  for  gathering  the  alfalfa  to- 
gether and  conveying  it  for  short  distances  to  the 
barn  or  stack.  These  sweep  rakes  are  operated 
each  by  one  man.  He  goes  afield,  gathers  his  load 


304  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

whether  in  swath,  windrow  or  cock,  brings  it  un- 
aided to  the  mow  or  rick,  leaves  it  there  and  with- 
out waiting  for  it  to  be  unloaded  goes  afield  for  an- 
other load.  Thus  one  man  with  a  pair  of  horses 
will  bring  as  much  hay  to  the  barn  or  rick  if  the 
haul  is  short  as  would  four  men  and  four  horses 
with  the  hay  loader.  Furthermore  these  rakes 
gather  the  hay  with  the  least  possible  loss  of  leaves 
since  it  is  simply  lifted  up,  pushed  together  and 
carried  to  the  unloading  place. 

Hay  Sleds. — The  eastern  farmer  may  not  have 
use  for  either  hay  loader  or  sweep  rake,  because  of 
the  small  size  of  his  fields.  He  can  use  a  simple 
hay  sled  to  good  advantage.  These  sleds  are  best 
made  of  boards  1/2"  thick  of  some  hard  wood  if  in 
the  hard  wood  country,  or  they  may  be  of  ordinary 
%"  stock  boards.  A  size  of  6'  wide  and  12'  long  is 
good.  Make  exactly  as  you  would  a  barn  door. 
Hitch  a  horse  to  the  front  end.  It  is  well  always  to 
let  these  sleds  rest  when  not  in  use  with  the  front 
end  supported  on  a  stake  about  24"  high.  This 
makes  it  warp  or  curve  a  little  and  thus  it  draws 
easier. 

On  these  simple  and  inexpensive  sleds  an  ac- 
tive man  will  load  an  incredible  amount  of  hay  in  a 
day,  and  a  small  horse  can  easily  draw  it  to  the  stack 
or  barn  if  the  distance  is  not  too  great.  There  it  is 
either  unloaded  by  simply  pushing  it  off,  or  the 
horse  stops  while  the  forks  lift  the  hay. 

Lifting  to  Stack  or  Mow. — Getting  the  hay  from 


HAYING   TOOLS.  305 

the  ground  to  the  top  of  the  stack  or  mow 
is  ever  an  engineering  problem  that  one  must 
study.  There  are  several  ways  of  attacking  it. 
One  can  arrange  to  take  up  very  large  bunches  at  a 
time  and  thus  economize  time.  Under  this  system 
one  must  use  two  horses  to  elevate  the  hay,  his  ropes 
and  lines  wear  out  rapidly  and  the  men  on  the  stack 
are  embarrassed  by  too  much  hay  all  at  once.  Or  he 
may  waste  time  by  an  inefficient  fork  and  carrier 
that  is  forever  getting  out  of  repair  and  never  takes 
up  very  much  at  a  time.  A  happy  medium  between 
these  is  desired. 

After  some  thirty  years  of  haymaking  I  think  that 
to  lift  drafts  of  about  500  Ibs  weight  at  a  haul  is 
about  right,  and  I  would  rather  go  under  that  weight 
than  over  it.  This  gets  the  hay  up  rapidly  enough 
and  yet  the  men  in  the  mow  can  handle  it  easily. 

There  are  many  forms  of  efficient  derricks  for  lift- 
ing hay  to  the  rick.  We  present  illustrations  of  sev- 
eral types  and  there  are  others  nearly  or  quite  as 
efficient. 

Grapple  Forks. — How  to  lift  the  hay  is  one  prob- 
lem, how  to  get  hold  of  it  to  lift  it  is  another 
quite  as  important.  I  like  the  Jackson  California 
fork  for  use  in  the  field  when  stacking  This  will 
grasp  an  incredible  weight  of  hay,  as  much  as  the 
men  care  to  handle  on  the  stack.  It  disturbs  the 
hay  very  little  and  leaves  it  on  the  stack  in  good 
condition.  Double  harpoon  forks  do  not  work  so  well 
in  the  field  as  they  do  in  the  barn.  There  are  effi- 


306  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

cient  grapple  forks  made  that  will  take  loose  hay 
and  deposit  it  nicely  on  the  stack. 

Unloading  Hay. — In  unloading  at  the  barn  the 
problem  is  rather  different,  especially  if  the  hay  has 
been  loaded  onto  wagons.  It  is  then  compacted 
so  that  forks  have  go'od  opportunity  to  get  hold  of  it. 
In  barns,  too,  it  is  possible  to  arrange  ideal  tracks 
for  unloading  machinery.  Good  apparatus  cost  lit- 
tle more  than  poor.  It  is  economy  to  put  in  the 
best. 

I  would  always  build  hay  barns  in  such  manner 
that  there  would  be  no  cross-ties  through  the  middle 
section,  thus  nothing  to  make  it  necessary  to  lift 
the  hay  to  the  peak  in  order  to  swing  it  in  to  the 
mow.  There  are  carriers  made  that  do  not  ever  lift 
the  load  higher  than  will  clear  the  level  of  the  hay  in 
the  mow  when  it  swings  in.  It  swings  in  at  any  height 
desired,  thus  will  put  the  hay  clear  into  the  peak,  or 
will  swing  it  in  at  the  level  of  the  mow  floor.  These 
carriers  use  either  slings  or  forks. 

Slings. — Slings  are  arrangements  of  ropes  form- 
ing a  sort  of  large  net  that  is  laid  in  the  bottom 
of  the  load  on  the  wagon  rack.  Pulley  blocks  with 
hooks  in  them  are  attached  rapidly  to  each  end  of 
the  sling  and  when  it  is  lifted  everything  comes  up 
clean  from  the  rack.  There  is  nothing  swifter, 
cleaner  or  more  efficient  than  the  sling. 

Curiously  enough  slings  are  not  in  common  use. 
Perhaps  the  reason  is  that  commonly  men  have 
sought  to  take  off  a  whole  load  by  putting  in  several 


AN  EFFICIENT  HAY  SLING. 


TYPES  OF  HAY  FORKS. 


HAYING   TOOLS.  307 

slings  and  lifting  them  in  succession.  This  scheme 
ought  to  work  well  but  troubles  because  men  loading 
hay  rapidly  in  the  field  forget  to  put  their  slings  in 
at  the  right  time,  or  else  in  unloading  get  hold  of  the 
wrong  slings,  getting  one  of  the  slings  at  the  front 
end  another  sling  at  the  rear.  Thus  each  is  drawn 
out  and  no  hay  lifted. 

I  avoid  all  this  trouble  by  using  only  one  sling, 
that  placed  in  the  bottom  of  the  load.  It  would  not 
do  of  course  to  attempt  to  lift  a  ton  or  a  ton  and  a 
half  of  hay  with  one  lift.  Therefore  the  top  of  the 
load  is  lifted  with  forks.  Two  of  these  are  used  at 
the  same  time,  one  in  each  end  of  the  load.  As  they 
raise  they  take  off  a  layer  of  hay  over  the  whole  load 
just  as  a  sling  would  do.  A  second  layer  is  taken  off 
by  aid  of  the  forks,  and  then  the  rest  -of  the  load  is 
cleaned  up  by  use  of  the  sling. 

By  aid  of  these  slings  one  can  elevate  alfalfa  hay 
very  rapidly.  I  have  repeatedly  taken  off  loads  in 
five  minutes,  which  would,  if  that  rate  be  held,  put 
in  barn  or  stack  100  tons  in  a  day.  Of  course  men  in 
the  mow  or  on  the  stack  could  not  care  for  hay  at  any 
such  rate. 

Care  of  Machinery. — A  good  deal  of  the  success 
of  any  hay  unloading  machinery  is  dependent  on 
the  care  of  the  apparatus.  It  pays  to  use  large 
pulleys  of  the  strongest  make.  It  pays  to  buy  the 
best  rope.  It  pays  to  keep  the  carriers  and  pulleys 
well  oiled.  Nowhere  else  is  intelligence  and  care 
better  worth  while  than  in  the  looking  after  hay  un- 


308  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

loading  machinery.    A  hitch  here  and   the  whole 
work  is  delayed  and  often  many  men  made  idle. 

The  Open  Center  Hay  Barn. — There  are  several 
advantages  of  building  hay  sheds  and  barns  with 
open  centers.  There  is  time  saved  for  one  thing, 
since  the  hay  is  never  lifted  to  the  peak  of  the  roof 
till  the  height  of  the  mow  makes  it  necessary.  Then 
the  hay  never  is  dropped  from  a  height,  thus  there 
is  not  such  hard  packing  of  the  middles.  This  pack- 
ing often  results  in  a  good  deal  of  spoiled  hay,  espe- 
cially if  it  is  put  away  rather  moist.  It  is  easier 
on  the  men  in  the  mow  since  they  can  push  the  hay 
one  way  or  the  other  as  it  drops  and  thus  do  quite  a 
little  toward  distributing  it  where  needed. 


HAY  MAKING  IN  RAINY 
COUNTRIES. 

Probably  most  of  the  readers  of  this  book  will 
dwell  where  showers  come  during  hay  harvest.  I 
remember  what  terror  filled  the  hearts  of  haymakers 
during  my  childhood,  spent  in  Ohio.  It  was  consid- 
ered a  calamity  to  have  hay  out  when  it  rained  and 
every  energy  was  put  forth  to  get  the  last  forkful 
up  before  the  storm  came.  Afterward  when  I  began 
the  growing  of  alfalfa  it  came  over  me  with  a  feeling 
of  dismay  that  with  much  alfalfa  to  harvest  it  would 
be  impossible  to  avoid  getting  a  lot  of  it  wet.  Later 
when  my  brothers  and  I  had  as  much  as  100  acres  or 
more  to  harvest  I  learned  that  they  would  have  al- 
falfa cut,  in  swath  or  in  cock,  during  nearly  every 
storm  that  fell  in  the  entire  summer.  From  observa- 
tion and  habit  we  at  last  learned  the  secret  of  making 
hay  with  no  material  damage  in  a  land  where  rain 
often  falls. 

Not  Hard  to  Cure. — Alfalfa  is  not  a  hard  stuff  to 
make  into  hay.  It  dries  easier  than  red  clover,  for 
example.  There  is  a  principle  to  be  observed  in 
making  alfalfa  hay  that  applies  to  making  hay  from 
all  clovers.  If  it  can  be  so  managed  that  the  leaves 
are  not  at  once  burned  and  dried  to  powder  the 
moisture  from  the  stems  is  the  more  easily  removed. 
Leaves  are  natural  evaporators  of  sap;  stems  are 
not.  Therefore,  while  the  leaf  has  yet  pliancy  and 

(309) 


310  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

some  semblance  of  its  natural  condition  it  is  most 
efficiently  carrying  away  the  sap  of  the  stem,  but 
when  it  has  dried  up  it  no  longer  aids  in  drying 
the  plant  at  all.  Therefore,  the  best  hay  in  all  re- 
spects is  made  partly  in  the  shade,  in  loosely  turned 
windrows,  in  narrow  cocks. 

Raking  the  Hay. — This  indicates  the  use  of  the 

side  delivery  rake.     It  is  an  admirable  tool  for  help- 

.ing  cure  hay.     One  can  lay  it  up  in  loose  windrows, 

hidden  in  part  from  the  burning  sun,  yet  penetrable 

by  the  air  and  do  a  good  deal  of  curing  there. 

We  do  not  make  much  use  of  the  tedder.  There 
are  times  when  it  should  be  used  in  very  heavy  hay, 
when  very  green  and  the  earth  wet  underneath.  The 
danger  with  the  tedder  is  that  one  will  use  it  too  late 
and  knock  off  showers  of  leaves.  Careful  use  of  the 
tedder  is  helpful;  indiscriminate  use  of  the  tedder 
may  do  great  injury. 

The  rake  should  always  be  started  before  the 
leaves  are  dry  enough  to  crumble.  Alfalfa  leaves 
are  worth  about  $25  per  ton.  They  are  worth  as 
much,  pound  for  pound,  as  wheat  middlings.  One 
must  plan  to  save  them. 

There  are  occasions  when  unavoidably  parts  of 
the  field  will  become  too  dry  to  rake  without  losing 
most  of  its  leave-s.  Then  let  it  alone  till  the  sun  has 
gone  down.  Almost  instantly  the  leaves  will  regain 
their  elasticity,  and  one  can  rake  without  losing 
them.  The  writer  has  done  this  several  times  and 
secured  beautiful  hay  with  nearly  every  leaf,  giving 


HAY  MAKING   IN  RAINY   COUNTRIES.  311 

the  man  who  worked  so  late  extra  pay  for  his  over- 
time. In  raking  such  hay,  which  is  of  course  very 
dry,  it  is  best  to  make  the  windrows  large. 

Usually  small  windrows  are  best.  We  follow 
about  this  practice:  The  mowers  are  run  when 
there  is  leisure  to  run  them,  paying  little  attention 
to  time  of  day.  Usually  several  of  them  are  started 
at  one  time,  when  teams  can  be  spared  from  other 
work.  It  is  well  if  the  dew  is  off  the  alfalfa  before 
it  is  mown,  but  convenience  sometimes  makes  us 
disregard  this  practice. 

Cocking  the  Hay. — As  soon  as  the  hay  is  tough 
and  the  le-aves  as  dry  as  it  is  safe  to  allow  them, 
the  rakes  are  started  and  small  windrows  made. 
At  once  men  follow  with  fo>rks  and  cock  the  hay  up 
in  the  old  fashioned  way.  Care  is  taken  to  make 
the  cocks  small  in  diameter,  and  as  high  as  they  can 
be  safely  piled.  The  workmen  are  shown  how  to 
take  the  hay  in  small  forkfuls  and  lay  it  up,  one 
forkful  squarely  above  another,  till  the  cock  is  made. 
This  with  a  little  practice  is  rapidly  done.  It  seems 
a  costly  thing  to  one  not  accustomed  to  this  sort  of 
handling  of  hay,  yet  a  skillful  and  energetic  man  will 
easily  cock  up  ten  tons  or  more  in  a  working  day. 
So  the  added  labor  cost  is  hardly  more  than  20  cents 
per  ton  from  cocking  up.  And  when  the  hay  is  later 
taken  up  it  is  handled  so  rapidly  that  some  credit 
must  be  allowed  for  that. 

Hay  cocked  thus  green  is  tough  so  that  the  stems 
naturally  droop  from  their  own  weight.  The  result 


312  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

is  that  should  rain  come  that  night  it  would  hardly 
penetrate  the  hay  at  all.  And  being  yet  somewhat 
green  and  hardly  dead  as  yet  rain  would  not  do 
much  injury  if  it  did  penetrate. 

Loading  on  Low  Wagons. — Towards  evening  it  is 
probable  that  there  will  be  found  some  hay  dry 
enough  to  go  to  mow  or  stack,  so  a  number  of  wagons 
will  be  loaded  and  run  into  sheds  as  the  last  cere- 
mony of  the  day. 

This  last  item  is  of  more  importance  than  one 
would  at  first  think.  In  a  showery  country  it  is  ex- 
ceedingly useful  to  have  facilities  for  rapidly  as- 
sembling a  lot  of  hay  and  putting  it  in  shelter  as 
night  closes.  The  Woodland  Farm  hay  wagons  are 
assembled  with  low  wheels  and  broad  tires  and  have 
platforms  tightly  boarded  over,  each  platform  1' 
wide  and  16'  long.  At  each  end  standards  help  the 
loaders.  On  such  a  low  platform  wagon  it  is  not  at 
all  difficult  to  place  two  tons  of  hay,  taken  from  the 
cock,  or  3,000  pounds  from  the  windrow.  On  the 
wagon  platform  is  laid  the  one  sling  that  goes  un- 
derneath the  load.  If  care  is  taken  to  have  this 
right  side  up  no  other  mistake  can  well  be  made 
with  it.  On  Woodland  Farm  seven  of  these  wagons 
are  used.  Some  might  suppose  this  a  costly  prep- 
aration, but  really  such  a  wagon  with  low  broad 
iron  wheels  and  simple  running  gears,  with  the  plat- 
form built  on  it,  costs  only  about  $40  and  may  be 
had  for  less  and  be  nearly  as  good.  The  advantage 
of  them  is  that  they  enable  a  man  to  hurry  in  away 


HAY  MAKING  IN   RAINY   COUNTRIES.  313 

from  approaching  storm  or  nightfall  a  lot  of  hay, 
and  this  can  be  all  unloaded  at  leisure  next  morning 
when  dew  is  on  the  grass,  or  it  may  be  showering. 

Opening  the  Cocks. — The  hay  in  the  cock  will  be 
left  unopened  till  the  dew  is  well  off  and  the  outside 
of  the  cocks  well  dried,  say  till  9  or  10  o'clock. 
One  can  never  lay  down  cast  iron  rules  for 
hay  making.  The  hay  in  the  cock  may  not 
need  opening  at  all,  but  the  chances  are  that  it 
will  if  it  is  to  go  in  at  once.  Sometimes  it  can  be  left 
for  a  few  days  in  hot,  dry  weather  and  it  will  per- 
fectly cure  in  the  cock.  I  do  not  often  do  this ;  it  is 
taking  too  much  chance.  By  10  o'clock,  if  the  day  is 
fair,  men  are  busily  opening  the  cocks  that  were  laid 
up  the  evening  before.  With  timothy  hay  one  tears 
it  all  apart  and  scatters  it  as  much  as  possible  when 
he  opens  it.  With  alfalfa,  on  the  other  hand,  one  lifts 
it  tenderly  and  puts  it  out  in  three,  four  or  more 
large  flakes,  just  as  the  cock  was  laid  up — this  to 
avoid  loss  of  leaves.  These  flakes  lying  under  the 
midday  sun  soon  dry.  After  dinner  maybe  they  will 
need  turning  over  once.  This  is  very  rapidly  done. 
Then  one  man  go-es  along  and  lays  them  in  cock 
again,  just  as  he  would  pile  up  buckwheat  cakes. 
This  is  done  very  fast  indeed,  and  the  hay  laid  up 
again  goes  right  on  drying.  Wagons  follow  and  it  is 
taken  as  fast  as  possible  to-  the  barn.  Late  in  the 
day  there  may  be  more  hay  to  rake  and  cock. 

This  is  the  system  followed  on  Woodland  Farm, 
and  almost  no  hay  is  lost  no  matter  how  it  rains. 


314  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Keep  Hay  from  the  Air. — As  soon  as  alfalfa  is 
half  dry  it  ought  to  be  kept  from  the  air  except  in 
dry  weather.  That  is,  if  it  should  happen  to  rain 
and  the  hay  is  lying  in  the  swath  it  will  be  much 
injured ;  if  it  is  in  windrow  it  is  less  hurt,  and  if  in 
cock  it  will  probably  be  hurt  none  at  all.  So  keep  it 
away  from  the  air  as  soon  as  it  is  getting  dry  and 
dews  or  rains  -are  coming.  This  lesson  can  not  be 
too  well  learned.  Alfalfa  once  thoroughly  dry,  then 
wetted,  is  much  more  injured  than  if  it  is  only  half 
dry  when  rain  falls.  While  I  am  always  rejoiced  at 
dry  weather  during  'alfalfa  harvest  yet  I  expect  to 
see  hay  in  the  field  during  almost  every  rainstorm 
of  the  summer. 

Degree  of  Dryness. — Our  rule  is  to  dry  hay  as  dry 
as  we  can.  How  dry  is  that  ?  Seldom  as  dry  as  we 
would  like,  certainly.  Our  test  is  to  take  a  wisp  of 
hay,  choosing  some  of  the  moister  part,  and  twist  it 
hard  to  see  if  we  can  wring  any  moisture  from  the 
stems.  If  we  can  not  we  put  it  in  the  mow  or  stack 
as  fast  as  we  can  get  it  there.  One  can  put  in  hay 
with  some  moisture  in  the  stems  but  moisture  of 
rain  or  dew  is  sure  to  spoil  the  hay.  We  learn  that 
the  larger  a  body  of  hay  is  put  in  in  one  place  the 
moister  it  may  be  and  not  spoil ;  that  when  only  one 
o>r  two  tons  are  put  in  a  small  mow  together  the 
hay  can  hardly  be  too  well  cured  when  it  is  put  in, 
but  that  mows  with  50  or  more  tons  together  will 
keep  well  even  if  the  hay  is  pretty  tough  when  put 
in.  The  heat  generated  by  the  hay  in  curing  dries 


HAY  MAKING  IN   RAINY  COUNTRIES.  315 

out  the  large  mass  and  no  doubt  destroys  the  germs 
of  mold  as  well. 

Brown  Hay. — This  heating  in  the  mow  destroys 
the  green  color  of  alfalfa  and  makes  it  brown  or 
yellow.  It  does  not  therefore  appear  so  attractive 
yet  most  animals  eat  it  all  the  more  greedily  for 
this  heating  that  it  has  undergone.  It  has  not  really 
been  injured  except  that  it  has  lost  a  little  in  weight. 
Storer  very  nicely  says  of  this  brown  hay : 

Besides  the  plan  of  having  hay  undergo  in  the  making  some 
slight  fermentation,  in  connection  with  the  true  sweating,  there 
is  another  much  more  emphatic  conception  put  in  practice  in 
the  process  of  making  brown  hay,  so  called.  This  is  a  process 
which  is  dependent  upon  decompositions  that  are  a  good  deal 
more  incipient;  but  which  has  nevertheless  found  favor  in  many 
districts,  especially  in  countries  where  the  weather  can  never 
be  depended  upon  for  making  hay  by  the  usual  process. 

In  making  brown  hay,  most  of  the  water  of  the  grass  is 
driven  off  by  the  heat  of  fermentation,  only  about  a  third  of  the 
original  moisture  being  dried  off  by  sun  and  air  in  the  first 
place.  Far  from  seeking  to  bring  the  hay  into  contact  with  the 
air,  the  chief  care  in  this  process  is  to  exclude  air  from  the  hay. 
For  making  brown  hay,  grass  that  has  been  wilted  to  such  an 
extent  that  the  leaves  have  shriveled,  although  the  stalks  are 
still  plump,  is  heaped  up  either  in  rather  large  masses  or  in 
smaller  heaps  that  have  been  trodden  in  such  wise  that  the 
air  shall  be  well-nigh  or  altogether  excluded  from  the  interior 
of  the  heap.  Under  these  conditions,  fermentation  soon  sets 
in  and  proceeds  with  a  good  degree  of  regularity.  In  the  course 
of  it  the  heap  becomes  very  hot,  often  as  hot  as  the  temperature 
of  boiling  water,  the  hay  takes  on  a  deep  brown  color,  and  gives 
off  an  odor  of  caramel  or  burnt  sugar. 

In  point  of  fact,  some  of  the  constituents  of  the  hay  undergo 
the  well-known  fermentation  which  chemists  distinguish  as  the 
alcoholic,  the  lactic  and  the  butyric;  in  other  words,  a  consid- 
erable part  of  the  carbohydrates  in  the  hay,  notably  the  sugar 
and  the  dextrin,  are  changed  to  alcohol,  carbonic  acid  and  lactic 
and  butyric  acids.  Of  course,  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
carbohydrates  are  destroyed  by  these  changes.  The  large  amount 
of  heat  that  is  developed  comes  from  the  destruction  of  these 


316  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

things.  Some  persons  have  thought  that  enough  heat  is  de- 
veloped to  kill  the  germs  of  hurtful  fungi  which  may  have  ex- 
isted upon  the  grass,  and  that  the  hay  is  thus  protected  from 
moldiness  and  from  putrefaction.  More  probably  it  is  the  copi- 
ous evolution  of  carbonic  acid  during  the  fermentation  and  the 
lactic  acid  formed  which  hinder  the  development  of  the  mi- 
crodemes  that  cause  putrefaction. 

Brown  hay  that  has  been  properly  prepared  is  greedily  eaten 
by  cattle,  and  readily  digested  and  utilized  by  them.  Since  the 
fermentation  destroys  a  larger  proportion  of  the  carbohydrates  of 
the  grass  than  of  the  albuminoids,  it  follows  that  brown  hay 
must  be  a  somewhat  more  highly  nitrogenized  food  than  ordi- 
nary green  hay. 

There  is  a  certain  analogy  between  brown  hay  and  black  tea. 
Black  tea  is  made  from  the  same  kind  of  leaves  as  green  tea, 
and  the  leaves  are  plucked  at  the  same  stage  of  their  growth. 
But  for  making  black  tea  the  leaves  are  fermented  in  heaps 
before  drying  them,  while  for  green  tea  the  leaves  are  dried 
directly. 

The  real  justification  for  making  brown  hay  is  that  the  farmer 
becomes  independent  of  climate,  and  that  even  very  weedy  grass 
may  be  saved  in  this  way  in  the  worst  of  seasons.  Much  labor 
is  required,  of  course,  in  raking  up  and  carrying  the  heavy 
green  grass.  The  loss  of  dry  organic  matter  in  making  brown 
hay  is  large.  Probably  it  is  never  less  than  14%  or  15%  of  that 
originally  contained  in  the  grass,  and  the  proportion  is  fre- 
quently much  larger  than  this. 

Management  in  the  Mow. — The  hay  mow  is  a  hard 
place,  especially  when  one  is  rolling  in  tough  alfalfa 
at  the  rate  of  a  ton  every  ten  minutes.  Therefore 
it  needs  good  men  and  plenty  of  them.  In  order  to 
have  the  hay  cure  nicely  in  the  mow  it  ought  all  to 
be  moved,  or  nearly  all.  The  practice  of  letting  the 
hay  pile  up  in  the  middle  as  it  falls  from  the  car- 
rier, rolling  to  each  side,  is  a  pernicious  one.  It 
makes  the  hay  very  hard  to  get  out  of  the  mow  and 
there  will  'be  more  mold  and  damage  in  the  middle 
than  there  would  if  the  hay  was  kept  level  in  the 


ALFALFA  GOING  INTO  THE  HAY  MOW. 


HAY  MAKING   IN   RAINY   COUNTRIES.  817 

mow,  or  a  little  higher  on  each  side  than  the  center. 

There  ought  to  be  no  beams  or  ties  or  anything 
in  the  mow  for  hay  to  rest  upon.  Where  it  is  held 
up  by  cross  beams  some  of  it  may  damage. 

Curing  Green  Alfalfa. — In  a  small  way  hay  can  be 
made  by  mixing  quite  moist  half-cured  hay  with 
bright  dry  straw  or  last  year's  hay.  I  have  often 
done  this,  laying  down  first  a  layer  of  straw,  then  a 
layer  of  alfalfa,  another  layer  of  straw  and  thus  on 
till  the  mow  is  full  or  the  supply  of  dry  material  is 
exhausted.  Shredded  corn  fodder  is  a  good  ma- 
terial to  use  in  this  way  and  it  is  notable  that  when 
the  mixed  foliage  is  fed  out  the  animals  will  eat  both 
the  alfalfa  and  the  other  material  mixed  with  it. 
Perhaps  some  of  the  flavor  of  the  alfalfa  is  im- 
parted to  the  other  material. 

Stacking  Out  of  Doors. — In  the  West  little  care 
is  taken  in  building  alfalfa  ricks.  They  are  often  as 
wide  as  25'  and  the  tops  very  flat  and  poorly  adapted 
to  shedding  off  rain.  In  the  East  this  will  not  do ; 
the  whole  stack  would  become  rotten.  Alfalfa  keeps 
all  right  in  stack  or  long  rick,  but  there  are  certain 
things  'to  bear  in  mind.  Grood  foundations  should 
be  built  high  enough  off  the  ground  so  that  'air  cir- 
culates under  them  freely.  They  ought  to  be  no 
more  than  about  16'  wide  at  the  base,  with  a  good 
bulge  higher  up,  and  built  as  high  as  practicable. 
We  build  them  on  Woodland  Farm  25'  high.  They 
should  not  be  too  hastily  finished,  as  they  will  settle 
unevenly  and  it  is  better  to  put  the  top  on  the 


318 


ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 


second  day  after  building.  The  tops  must  be  of  wild 
hay,  timothy  or  some  such  material  that  will  shed 
water.  Alfalfa  alone  will  not  shed  water  at  all  well. 


MODERN  METHOD  OF  STACKING  HAY. 

There  are  covers  made  of  wide  boards  that  serve 
well.  These  boards  are  held  in  place  by  use  of  spe- 
cially constructed  chains  in  which  the  boards  are 
slipped.  The  boards  ought  to  have  two  good  coats 


HAY   MAKING   IN  RAINY   COUNTRIES.  319 

of  paint  before  being  used;  a  light  colored  paint  is 
best.  Canvas  stack  covers  are  of  use.  They  de- 
cay rapidly  when  left  on  the  stacks  for  a  long  time. 
Steam  arises  from  the  stacks  and  condensing  on  the 
canvas  covers  keeps  them  constantly  moist  and 
warm,  favoring  decay. 

Use  of  Hay  Caps. — Hay  caps  of  stout  cotton  cloth 
or  light  canvas  are  very  useful.  They  may  be  about 
48"  square  and  should  have  weights  at  each  corner. 
A  convenient  way  to  make  these  weights  is  to  make 
them  of  balls  of  moist  cement.  By  putting  a  hole 
as  large  as  a  cent  piece  in  the  corner  of  the  square 
and  squeezing  the  ball  of  cement  so  that  it  will 
surround  the  corner  of  the  fabric  and  pass  through 
the  hole  it  will  become  very  firmly  attached.  If  the 
cement  is  as  large  as  an  orange  it  will  do  no  harm 
and  hold  on  the  covers  all  the  more  securely  if  the 
wind  blows,  which  it  usually  does  before  rain. 
These  weights  are  far  better  than  cords  and  pegs 
which  get  inextricably  tangled  in  handling  covers. 

The  objection  to  the  covers  is  the  trouble  of  using 
them,  gathering  them  up  again  and  taking  care  of 
them.  However,  where  hay  is  as  valuable  as  it  is 
in  the  Atlantic  states  I  advise  their  use  by  all 
means.  There  is  one  danger;  it  may  lull  the  user 
into  a  feeling  of  security  that  will  prevent  him  has- 
tening as  he  ought.  Thus  the  new  growth  may 
spring  up  and  be  turned  white  beneath  the  cocks. 
Hay  caps  or  no  hay  caps,  make  it  a  rule  to  make  hay 
while  the  sun  shines. 


320  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Salting  Hay. — An  old  practice  is  that  of  adding 
salt  to  hay  as  it  goes  in  the  mow  with  the  idea  of 
better  preserving  it  and  also  making'  it  more  pala- 
table to  the  animals.  There  is  something  in  each  be- 
lief. It  is  not  true  that  enough  salt  may  safely  be 
added  to  keep  very  wet  hay.  I  have  tried  this  dur- 
ing wet  seasons  and  am  now  satisfied  that  if  salt 
enough  is  added  to  make  hay  keep,  it  will  not  be 
safe  hay  to  feed  to  animals  after  it  has  kept.  How- 
ever, when  hay  is  only  a  little  moist  there  is  no 
doubt  that  adding  a  portion  of  salt  abstracts  some 
moisture  and  helps  its  preserving  qualities.  Ani- 
mals too  relish  hay  better  if  it  is  slightly  salted,  and 
no  doubt  they  thrive  better  to  have  their  salt  mixed 
with  their  food.  As  to  the  amount  of  salt  that 
should  be  put  on  the  hay,  I  would  not  advise  more 
than  10  or  12  Ibs.  to  a  ton  of  hay.  Hay  that  has  been 
slightly  salted  is  tougher  when  taken  from  the  mow 
and  loses  its  leaves  less  and  is  therefore  better  to 
handle  and  better  to  bale. 

Do  Not  Dry  Hay  Too  Much. — Alfalfa  hay  may  be 
dried  too  much  in  the  field.  If  this  is  done  it  will 
not  handle  well  nor  will  it  pack  well  in  the  mow. 
Thus  one  will  not  get  nearly  as  much  hay  into  his 
mow  as  it  ought  to  hold.  Perhaps  no  one  can  de- 
scribe to  another  how  dry  hay  ought  to  be.  It  takes 
experience  to  teach  this,  and  one  must  learn  to  know 
the  feel  of  it.  If  the  hay  is  harsh  and  brittle  it  is 
too  dry.  If  it  is  damp  and  limp  it  is  too  moist.  If 
any  moisture  from  rain  or  dew  is  on  it  it  will  spoil. 


HAY  MAKING   IN   RAINY   COUNTRIES.  321 

Internal  moisture  from  the  stems  and  leaves  will  not 
do  half  the  harm  that  dampness  of  rain  or  dew  will. 

The  Sweating  of  Hay  Mows. — When  one  puts  in  a 
mass  of  alfalfa  hay  in  the  right  condition  it  is  sure 
to  become  hot  and  this  heat  makes  vapor,  almost 
steam.  This  rises  and  condenses  on  the  top  layer  of 
hay,  making  it  moist.  Thus  there  may  be  a  little 
moldy  hay  on  the  very  top  of  the  mow.  It  is  well 
to  put  on  a  layer  of  very  dry  hay  at  the  last,  if  this 
is  convenient.  One  need  not  feel  troubled  or  anxious 
about  his  hay  merely  because  he  finds  it  sweating 
and  some  condensed  steam  on  the  top  layer. 

Spontaneous  Combustion  in  Hay. — Alfalfa  hay 
put  in  with  considerable  moisture  in  the  stems  be- 
comes intensely  hot  in  the  mow.  It  may  be  only  hot 
enough  to  cure  nicely  or  it  may,  if  put  in  too  green, 
become  hot  eno-ugh  to  ignite.  I  once  stacked  hay  in 
October  when  because  of  humid  weather  I  could  not 
get  the  hay  dry.  At  length  in  despair  it  was  put  in 
the  stack  in  a  very  moist  condition.  A  large  rick  was 
built  of  it,  only  half  cured.  This  rick  heated  to  such 
an  extent  that  part  of  it  was  charred,  some  was  made 
into  excellent  silage  and,  with  the  exception  of  a 
very  little  mold,  the  rest  was  excellent  brown  hay. 
It  is  notable  that  'Stock  like  better  this  brown  hay 
than  hay  that  is  dried  so  that  it  cures  with  the 
green  color.  The  fact  is  the  great  'heat  developed  in 
curing  under-dried  hay  partly  cooks  it;  there  is  a 
loss  in  carbohydrates,  but  the  hay  is  richer  than  ever 
in  protein  and  no  do>ubt  more  digestible. 


322  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

This  rick  of  silage  and  charred  hay  would  have 
burned  had  we  helped  it  by  opening  it  and  admitting 
air  at  the  right  time.  By  leaving  it  alone  it  died 
from  smothering;  there  was  not  oxygen  enough  in 
the  mass  to  make  it  burn.  There  are,  however,  a 
good  many  instances  of  spontaneous  combustion  oc- 
curring in  alfalfa  ricks  and  mows  in  Kansas  where 
the  very  rank  growths  are  often  put  up  without  suffi- 
cient drying.  It  is  notable  that  in  many  instances 
recorded  the  fire  breaks  out  after  the  farmer  be- 
comes alarmed  at  the  hotness  of  his  mow  or  stack 
and  goes  to  open  it  out,  when  it  gets  air,  takes  fire 
and  burns.  It  is  doubtful  if  there  would  often  occur 
a  case  of  spontaneous  combustion  if  the  barn  was 
fairly  tight  and  no  air  was  let  in  by  braces  or  beams 
running  into  the  mow.  The  best  thing  usually 
when  one  fears  spontaneous  combustion  in  mow  or 
stack  is  to  watch  it  and  carefully  avoid  opening  it 
or  doing  anything  to  let  the  air  into  the  mass. 

I  once  put  green  oat  hay  into  the  mow,  a  great 
many  tons  of  it,  and  spontaneous  combustion  set  in 
in  this  mow,  and  steam  filled  the  lower  story  for 
days.  We  kept  adding  hay  above  and  thought  little 
of  it.  The  mass  cooled  down,  but  when  the  hay  was 
taken  out  there  were  tons  of  charred  hay  that  could 
not  be  handled  with  the  fork.  It  seems  that  had  we 
dug  into  the  mass  we  would  have  lost  the  barn. 

There  is  practically  no  danger  of  spontaneous 
combustion  unless  the  hay  is  put  in  much  too  green 
and  moist. 


SOILING  AND  PASTURE. 

There  is  great  advantage  in  soiling  cattle  rather 
than  letting  them  run  on  the  land  and  eat  at  will. 
An  acre  of  land  will  carry  three  times  as  much  stock 
if  the  crop  is  cut  and  taken  to  the  animals  as  it  will 
carry  if  they  are  allowed  to  run  upon  it.  When  al- 
falfa is  the  soiling  crop  an  acre  will  carry  about  the 
same  number  of  animals  that  five  acres  will  pasture. 

There  are  good  reasons  for  this.  Animals  grazing 
tread  down  and  injure  both  the  soil  and  the  plants. 
Alfalfa  is  not  perfectly  adapted  to  being  depastured. 
Grasses  are  natural  pasture  plants.  They  make 
growth  from  the  lower  end  of  the  blades.  Thus 
when  the  upper  ends  are  eaten  off  the  new  growth 
pushes  them  on  up  'again.  However,  even  grasses 
are  weakened  by  being  eaten  too  clos-e.  Alfalfa  grows 
from  buds  and  if  these  buds  are  eaten  off  then  no 
growth  can  take  place  till  new  buds  have  started 
again.  Thus  it  is  clearly  much  more  advantageous 
to  let  the  alfalfa  mature  and  cut  and  carry  the  for- 
age to  the  animals  than  to  feed  it  off  by  depastur- 
ing. 

Advantages  of  Soiling. — There  are  other  advan- 
tages in  this  manner  of  feeding  alfalfa.  It  seldom 
or  never  bloats  animals  when  it  is  cut  and  taken  to 
them,  even  if  fed  very  green  or  with  the  dew  on 
it.  For  some  reason,  perhaps  because  when  eating 


324  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN    AMERICA. 

cut  alfalfa  they  eat  the  stems  as  well  as  the  leaves, 
animals  rarely  bloat  on  cut  alfalfa.  I  have  prac- 
ticed feeding  it  to  steers  and  ewes  and  have  never 
seen  a  case  where  it  gave  trouble.  Certainly  no  ani- 
mal eating  alfalfa  either  green  or  dry  should  ever  be 
allowed  to  get  very  hungry  before  getting  its  feed. 

Further,  alfalfa  is  so  rich  a  feed  that  no  other 
soiling  crop  that  can  be  mentioned  is  as  good,  and 
it  is  so  very  easily  grown.  One  can  grow  as  much 
as  25  tons  per  acre  of  green  alfalfa  on  any  good, 
deep  soil,  and  this  forage  is  richer  in  elements  going 
to  make  growth  and  muscle  and  milk  than  almost 
any  that  may  be  named. 

Tests  of  Soiling. — The  Nebraska  Station  reports 
that  in  an  experiment  conducted  there  it  required 
.71  of  an  acre  to  keep  a  cow  for  a  given  time  by 
soiling,  while  by  pasturing  it  required  3.63  acres. 

In  New  Jersey  Prof.  Voorhees  said  that  the  first 
cutting  of  alfalfa  yielded  nine  tons  per  acre,  the 
second  7.73  tons,  the  third  4.89,  fourth  2.75  and  fifth 
2.23,  or  a  total  yield  of  26.60  tons  of  green  forage. 
About  30  to  50  Ibs.  per  day  of  this  green  forage  will 
be  consumed  by  a  cow.  At  the  maximum  rate  an 
acre  of  alfalfa  would  feed  36  cows  one  day,  first  cut- 
ting, and  to  feed  that  number  of  cows  safely  through 
the  season  from  the  middle  of  May  until  late  October 
would  take  about  40  acres  only  of  alfalfa,  Allowing 
something  to  give  good  margin,  one  can  feed  splen- 
didly 36  cows  on  50  acres  of  alfalfa  and  have  chance 
to  make  quite  a  little  hay  as  well  from  the  field. 


SOILING   AND    PASTURE.  325 

Double  System  Best. — But  this  would  hardly  be 
the  most  profitable  way  to  use  either  the  cow  or  the 
alfalfa.  A  partial  system  of  soiling  in  connection 
with  a  good  pasture  is  the  better  way.  Thus  if  the 
cows  were  put  daily  in  the  .stable,  or  fed  in  racks, 
with  20  to  25  Ibs.  of  green  alfalfa  and  then  given 
access  to  a  good  pasture  of  almost  any  sort  of  nutri- 
tious grass  the  results  would  be  much  better.  For 
making  beef  I  found  that  when  racks  are  placed  in 
the  bluegrass  pasture  and  are  filled  daily  or  once 
in  two  or  three  days  with  green  alfalfa,  the  cattle 
made  splendid  growth.  When  in  addition  a  small 
amount  of  corn  was  fed  them  they  made  probably 
the  most  rapid  and  cheapest  gains  possible. 

Early  Cutting  Hurtful. — Alfalfa  makes  early 
growth  for  soiling,  but  it  is  bad  for  the  plants  to  be 
mown  off  too  early.  In  England  where  alfalfa  is 
chiefly  used  as  a  soiling  crop  for  horses  the  alfalfa 
is  much  weakened  where  it  is  cut  too  early,  along  -the 
top  of  the  field  where  cutting  begins.  On  Wood- 
land Farm,  where  alfalfa  has  often  been  cut  for  soil- 
ing sheep,  it  has  been  observed  that  where  the  cut- 
ting was  premature  the  alfalfa  soon  became  unpro- 
ductive and  weeds  and  grasses  came  in. 

If  therefore  it  is  desired  that  the  field  endure 
for  a  number  of  years  it  is  well  to  wait  till  near  the 
time  of  bloom  before  beginning  to  cut,  even  for  soil- 
ing. Or  it  may  be  felt  to  be  cheaper  to  sacrifice  a 
little  of  the  field  in  order  to  take  advantage  of  the 
first  available  growth.  In  this  case  the  strip  mown 


326  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

too  early  may  be  plowed  and  resown  in  late  July 
after  being  cut  two  or  three  times. 

Repeating  the  Mowing. — Once  one  gets  started 
over  the  field  cutting  for  soiling  he  ought  to  manage 
to  come  around  with  his  second  cutting  in  about  35 
days.  This  is  not  very  difficult  to  manage.  Suppos- 
ing the  normal  time  for  alfalfa  harvest  to  be  June 
1,  if  he  begins  cutting  for  soiling  on  May  15,  which 
he  very  easily  can  do,  and  cuts  a  strip  each  day  till 
June  20,  he  will  not  find  the  crop  very  woody,  and  by 
that  time  his  first  cutting  will  be  ready  to  go  over 
again  and  so  on  in  rotation  all  summer  long. 

Soiling  for  Dairy  Cows. — Doubtless  the  dairy  cow 
relishes  green  food  most  of  any  farm  animals,  and 
needs  it  most.  There  is  something  about  green  sap 
that  makes  milk.  Dry  that  sap  and  it  never  is  so 
good  again.  Then  dairies  are  often  situated  in  re- 
gions where  feeds  are  dear.  A  man  keeping  cows 
near  any  of  our  eastern  cities  can  find  immense  profit 
in  growing  alfalfa  for  feeding  green  as  well  as  dry. 
There  is  not  a  dairyman  with  a  little  farm  land  who 
can  not  grow  alfalfa  with  splendid  profit.  He  has 
the  manure  for  starting  it,  he  has  the  market  in  his 
own  animals  for  the  forage.  If  he  can  make  a  living 
at  all  in  the  dairy  business  he  can  make  money,  and 
plenty  of  it,  with  the  aid  of  alfalfa  and  soiling. 

Soiling  on  Pasture. — I  have  already  mentioned  a 
system  of  feeding  that  combines  practicability  with 
economy  and  gives  good  results,  that  is  the  feeding 
of  green  alfalfa  in  racks  on  pasture.  These  racks 


SOILING   AND   PASTURE.  327 

should  be  large,  so  that  they  will  'hold  at  least  a 
day's  supply  of  forage,  and  they  may  just  as  well 
hold  enough  for  two  or  more  days.  They  ought  to 
be  on  runners  so  that  they  can  be  readily  moved  by 
attaching  a  team  of  horses.  Thus  the  racks  need 
not  stand  in  any  one  spot  long  enough  to  kill  the 
grass  there.  And  wherever  they  stand  the  grass  will 
be  wonderfully  thickened  and  improved. 

Cows  will  give  more  milk  and  make  it  cheaper  to 
have  the  run  of  a  grass  field  in  connection  with  al- 
falfa soiling  than  when  they  are  soiled  on  alfalfa 
in  the  stable.  There  is  also  a  great  economy  of  labor 
in  this  practice  since  there  is  no  manure  to  handle, 
and  if  the  racks  are  moved  often  the  spread  of  fer- 
tility over  the  grass  field  will  wonderfully  improve 
the  pasturage. 

In  cutting  alfalfa  for  soiling  one  ought  always 
after  the  first  cutting  to  be  governed  by  the  growth 
of  the  buds  or  shoots  at  the  base  of  the  stems  as  al- 
ready directed.  Thus  the  vigor  of  the  plants  will 
not  be  disturbed  and  the  yield  will  continue  un- 
diminished  for  several  years. 

In  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  of  California,  are 
many  very  great  alfalfa  ranches  and  farms.  I  have 
seen  there  large  dairies  fed  on  green  alfalfa  and  on 
alfalfa  <silage,  it  being  found  better  to  ensilo  the  al- 
falfa in  order  to  soften  the  prickly  beards  of  the 
wild  grasses  infesting  the  fields.  The  more  common 
practice  throughout  the  San  Joaquin  Valley,  how- 
ever, is  to  pasture  the  alfalfa  in  summer  and  feed 


328  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

in  winter  cut  alfalfa  that  has  been  moistened  and 
sprinkled  with  barley  meal,  about  four  pounds  of  the 
meal  to  thirty  pounds  of  alfalfa,  or  even  a  less 
amount  is  often  used  and  fed  to  steers,  dairy  cattle, 
and  in  fact  to  all  sorts  of  live  stock. 

Green  Alfalfa  in  Dairy  Rations. — New  York  has 
made  valuable  experiments  to  determine  the  cost  of 
milk  from  alfalfa  and  from  other  sources  of  succu- 
lent forage.  Concerning  alfalfa  on  the  Geneva  sta- 
tion farm,  Bulletin  (No.  80),  says: 

Alfalfa  has  grown  well  on  the  station  farm,  although  the  soil 
is  a  rather  heavy  clay.  A  field  of  alfalfa  of  2.28  acres,  sown  in 
1890,  yielded  this  season  (1894)  for  the  first  two  cuttings — the 
first  during  June  and  the  second  about  August  1 — at  the  rate 
of  24,500  pounds  of  green  forage  per  acre.  On  account  of  very 
severe  drought  the  third  cutting  was  very  light  and  only  part 
of  the  field  was  cut  for  the  fourth  time.  Another  field  of  al- 
falfa of  1.3  acres,  sown  in  1893,  yielded  at  the  rate  of  33,800 
pounds  of  green  forage  per  acre,  as  the  total  for  four  cuttings. 
The  last  two  cuttings  were  very  light  on  account  of  severe 
drought.  The  first  two  cuttings,  from  May  11  to  31,  and  from 
July  9  to  28,  yielded  at  the  rate  of  a  little  over  12  tons  of  green 
forage  per  acre.  These  fields  had  been  steadily  cropped  and 
not  well  manured  for  some  years  before  sowing  to  alfalfa,  and 
were  not  in  condition  to  produce  heavy  crops. 

The  importance  of  feeding  leguminous  crops  has  led  to  many 
inquiries  concerning  the  value  of  alfalfa  as  forage  for  milch 
cows,  for  the  alfalfa  is  mueh  liked  by  cattle  and  other  animals 
and  contains  an  unusually  large  proportion  of  nitrogenous  con- 
stituents. The  rapid  growth  of  the  plant,  which  can  be  cut 
three  times  during  the  season,  and  often  four  times,  makes  it 
especially  worthy  of  consideration  where  soiling  methods  are 
practiced. 

Then  follows  an  account  of  very  careful  and  accu- 
rate experiments  with  cows,  feeding  various  grain 
and  hay  rations,  with  green  peas  and  oats,  clover, 
corn  silage  and  sugar  beets.  In  every  instance  the 


SOILING  AND  PASTURE. 


329 


comparison  was  in  favor  of  the  alfalfa,  taking  into 
account  the  ease  with  which  it  was  grown  and  har- 
vested and  the  improvement  to  the  soil  that  follows 
its  use.  N  v-  r  *  *  % 

The  whole  bulletin  is  well  worth  study,  but  I  re- 
produce only  the  general  observations : 

These  feeding  trials  here  reported,  though  many  of  them  for 
periods  necessarily  rather  short,  were  repeated  for  several  sea- 
sons and  are  the  average  results  from  a  number  of  different 
cows,  so  that  the  indications  which  they  all  give  of  the  value 
of  alfalfa  can  hardly  be  considered  accidental. 

The  average  of  all  the  analyses  made  of  the  fourteen  lots  of 
alfalfa  used  in  these  feeding  trials  will  give  an  idea  of  the  gen- 
eral composition  of  alfalfa  forage.  The  average  composition  of 
three  lots  of  mature  corn  forage  might  be  considered  beside  that 
of  the  alfalfa  for  comparison  as  follows: 


Alfalfa  forage. 

Corn  forage. 

Per  cent  of  moisture  

75.10 

71.80 

Per  cent  of  ash  . 

2  28 

1  20 

Per  cent  of  protein  

4  48 

2.27 

Per  cent  of  true  albuminoids 

3  53 

1  97 

Per  cent  of  crude  fiber  

6.59 

5  17 

10  26 

18  46 

Per  cent  of  fats                               .                  .... 

1.29 

1.10 

In  determining  the  cost  of  milk,  for  purpose  of  comparison, 
for  each  period  reported  in  the  preceding  tables,  the  cost  of  the 
food  only  was  considered.  The  manurial  values  of  the  foods 
were  not  taken  into  account,  although  under  favorable  condi- 
tions the  net  cost  to  the  farm  of  milk  would  be  much  influ- 
enced by  the  fertilizing  values  of  the  foods.  The  manurial 
values  of  rations  containing  alfalfa  and  of  those  containing 
highly  nitrogenous  grain  foods  would  be  much  greater  than  of 
most  rations,  but  except  where  especial  attention  is  given  to 
careful  handling  of  manure,  only  a  small  proportion  of  the 
possible  amount  would  be  recovered. 

When  alfalfa  forage  was  substituted  for  some  other  food  or 
the  amount  of  alfalfa  in  the  ration  increased,  there  followed,  in 
ten  instances  a  decrease  in  the  cost  of  the  milk,  in  two  in- 
stances a  very  slight  increase  in  cost,  and  in  two  instances  the 
cost  of  milk  was  practically  the  same.  There  was  an  increase 


330  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

in  the  yield  of  milk  in  seven  instances,  a  decrease  in  four  in- 
stances of  about  what  might  normally  be  expected  to  occur 
without  change  of  food,  and  little  change  in  yield  in  three  in- 
stances. 

When  the  change  was  from  a  ration  containing  alfalfa  to  one 
containing  less  or  no  alfalfa,  there  followed  an  increase  in  the 
cost  of  milk  in  ten  instances  and  there  was  about  the  same  cost 
once.  There  was  a  decrease  of  the  milk  yield  in  nine  instances, 
and  an  increase  of  the  milk  yield  in  two. 

When  alfalfa  was  substituted  for  other  foods  in  the  ration  or 
the  amount  of  alfalfa  increased  there  followed  a  decrease  in  the 
cost  of  fat  in  seven  instances  and  an  increase  of  the  cost  in  six 
instances.  There  was  an  increase  of  the  amount  of  fat  in  six 
instances,  a  decrease  in  five  instances,  and  little  change  in 
amount  twice. 

When  the  change  was  from  a  ration  containing  alfalfa  to  one 
containing  less  or  none,  there  followed  an  increase  in  the  cost  of 
fat  in  nine  instances,  a  decrease  in  cost  once,  and  there  was 
about  the  same  cost  twice.  There  was  an  increase  of  the  amount 
of  fat  in  three  instances,  a  decrease  in  three,  and  about  the  same 
amount  of  fat  in  five. 

When  the  change  in  the  ration  was  to  more  alfalfa.,  or  to 
alfalfa  in  place  of  some  other  food,  there  followed  a  decrease 
in  per  cent,  of  fat  in  milk  in  six  instances,  an  increase  in  three, 
and  little  change  in  per  cent,  in  four  instances.  When  changed 
from  a  ration  containing  alfalfa  to  one  containing  less  or  none, 
there  followed  an  increase  in  per  cent,  of  fat  in  six  instances  and 
a  decrease  of  per  cent,  in  five. 

There  has  been  usually  an  increase  in  milk  yield  accompany- 
ing the  use  of  alfalfa,  although  there  was  often  at  the  same 
time  a  decrease  in  the  per  cent  of  fat.  With  alfalfa  forage, 
rated  at  the  same  cost  as  other  forage,  there  was  generally  a 
decrease  in  the  cost  of  milk  when  the  alfalfa  was  fed,  and  not 
much  change  in  the  cost  of  the  fat  produced. 

Corn  forage  (fully  matured),  in  the  results  accompanying  its 
use,  has  compared  most  favorably  with  alfalfa;  but  except  in 
the  form  of  silage  it  is  only  available  for  a  short  time  in  the 
fall  before  frost.  Alfalfa  is  ready  for  the  first  cutting  about  the 
time  of  planting  corn,  and  about  as  early  as  rye  forage  can  be 
cut.  The  proportion  of  constituents  also  differs  so  widely  be- 
tween alfalfa  and  corn  forage  that  these  plants  can  not  well  be 
considered  as  substitutes  for  each  other,  but  as  supplementary. 
For  making  rations  like  those  usually  fed,  coarse  fodder  and 
grain  foods,  in  general  cheaper  than  those  used  with  corn  forage, 


SOILING   AND   PASTURE.  331 

can  be  used  with  alfalfa.  The  more  highly  nitrogenous  grains 
and  hays  fed  with  corn  silage  or  forage,  however,  have  a  much 
higher  manurial  value,  which  is  often  of  wide  importance. 

The  palatability  of  alfalfa  or  of  corn  (maize)  is  greater  than 
of  most  other  forage  plants  of  rapid  growth  that  will  yield  heavy 
crops.  This  is  a  matter  of  the  greatest  importance. 

From  my  own  experience  I  believe  that  there  is 
hardly  anywhere  a  farmer  who<  could  not  use  a  small 
field  of  alfalfa,  profitably  in  summer  as  a  soiling 
crop.  There  are  always  dry  times  when  grasses 
fail  and  cows  shrink  in  milk;  there  are  pigs  and 
lambs  and  horses,  all  of  which  relish  green  feed  and 
particularly  if  it  is  the  delicious  alfalfa  forage. 
It  is  an  insurance  against  drought  and  an  acre  of 
good  alfalfa  cut  and  fed  green  to  stock  will  give  as 
much  as  ten  or  more  of  average  pasture  grasses. 

Alfalfa  for  Soiling  Horses. — In  all  Europe  much 
reliance  is  placed  on  fresh-cut  green  feed  for  horses 
in  summer  time.  Sometimes  it  is  vetches  and  rye, 
sometimes  grass,  sometimes  alfalfa.  And  alfalfa 
or  lucerne  is  the  most  prized  and  best  relished  of  all 
the  forage  plants  cultivated  over  there  for  feeding 
green  to  horses.  Horses  fed  a  daily  ration  of  green 
stuff  keep  in  far  healthier  condition  than  when  fed 
on  dry  hay  throughout  the  summer.  With  green  al- 
falfa available  the  grain  ration  may  be  considerably 
lessened.  The  alfalfa  should  not,  however,  be  cut 
for  horses  till  somewhat  mature,  at  least  at  the  stage 
when  it  would  be  cut  for  hay.  Working  horses  may 
go  to  pasture  at  night  in  which  case  soiling  is  not 
so  necessary.  They  may  have  the  run  of  an  alfalfa 


332  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

pasture  and  will  do  well  on  it. '  However,  the  same 
truth  applies  to  pasturing  horses  on  alfalfa  as  ap- 
plied to  other  animals — an  acre  cut  and  fed  to  them 
will  go  as  far  as  three  or  more  acres  pastured. 

When  there  are  mares,  foals  and  idle  horses  on 
pasture  it  is  an  excellent  plan  to  give  them  a  daily 
ration  of  green  alfalfa  as  has  been  suggested  for 
the  cows. 

Alfalfa  for  Soiling  Sheep. — I  was  struck  by  the 
great  use  made  of  soiling  crops  in  France.  There 
one  would  sometimes  see  a  large  flock,  consisting 
may  be  of  2,000  head,  all  kept  during  great  part  of 
the  day  in  some  fine  old  stone  stable  or  shed,  there 
eating  green  clovers  with  the  bloom  on.  And  a  great 
part  of  these  clovers  would  be  alfalfa,  mixed  no 
doubt  somewhat  with  sainfoin  or  red  clovers.  What 
fine,  healthy  flocks,  they  were!  How  free  from  all 
traces  of  stomach  worms !  It  made  me  feel  that  we 
in  America  know  very  little  yet  about  keeping  sheep. 

The  ruin  of  American  flo<cks  usually  is  the  hateful 
parasite.  It  gets  in  its  work  when  sheep  are  pas- 
tured for  successive  years  on  our  old  bluegrass  pas- 
tures. When  sheep  are  soiled  on  alfalfa,  or  on  al- 
most any  cultivated  crop  for  that  matter,  the  para- 
site can  not  gain  entrance  and  the  animal  remains 
in  health.  A  healthy  sheep  is  pretty  sure  to  be  a  fat, 
contented  and  profitable  sheep.  The  labor  of  soil- 
ing sheep  is  the  one  objection  to  the  practice.  It  is 
well  repaid,  'however,  in  most  instances,  since  the  re- 
sults are  so  very  good. 


SOILING  AND  PASTURE. 

Method  of  Soiling. — One  ought  to  have  barns  or 
sheds  well  adapted  to  the  practice  and  more  or  less 
dry  straw  is  needed.  If  he  has  airy  sheds  that  he 
can  drive  through  with  wagon  or  cart,  arranged 
with  racks  on  either  side  in  which  he  will  place  his 
green  alfalfa  or  other  forage,  a  flock  can  be  fed  in 
very  few  minutes.  A  man  with  mower,  rake  and 
team  would  easily  feed  and  care  for  1,000  sheep.  A 
lesser  number  would  be  a  little  more  costly  to  feed, 
certainly.  When  one  has  a  flock  of  pure-bred  ewes 
and  wishes  to  grow  the  best  of  lambs  he  had  better 
try  this  soiling  system,  with  a  little  dry  hay  and 
grain  in  addition  to  what  alfalfa  they  wish.  It  is 
a  joy  to  see  such  lambs  as  will  grow  up  under  such 
a  system.  It  has  been  often  tried  on  Woodland  Farm. 

Keep  Sheep  from  Small  Pastures. — It  must  be 
borne  in  mind  when  soiling  sheep  for  prevention  of 
parasites  that  they  ought  to  have  no  run  to  grass. 
There  should  be  an  absolutely  clean  lot,  with  no 
weeds,  no  grass;  then  the  airy,  cool  shed,  the 
feed  racks,  the  water  and  salt.  If  there  is  a  small 
grass  lot  on  which  they  also  run  it  is  certain  that 
they  will  pick  up  myriads  of  parasites  there  and  then 
the  owner  will  say  in  disgust,  "Soiling  sheep  will 
not  keep  them  healthy. ' '  It  will  keep  them  in  health, 
if  they  cannot  get  the  parasites  from  the  vegetation 
springing  up  from  where  their  droppings  have  been 
deposited  at  some  former  time.  Lambs  kept  in 
yards  absolutely  clean,  fed  on  soiling  crops,  grain 
and  hay,  will  be  as  big  at  six  months  old  as  they 


334  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

would  at  a  year  given  the  run  of  pasture  infected 
more  or  less  with  stomach  worms. 

Sheep  Husbandry  in  the  Cornbelt. — How  can  we 
have  a  great  and  successful  sheep  husbandry  in  the 
cornbelt?  By  first  building  wide  sheds,  with  room 
to  drive  through  easily,  and  hay  storage  above. 
Feed  the  sheep  in  these  sheds  during  the  winter  and 
give  the  run  of  pastures.  There  is  no  danger  then, 
with  chance  to*  glean  corn  stalks  or  what  not.  In 
April  confine  ewes  and  lambs  to  the  sheds,  feed 
them  green  alfalfa  and  other  green  crops,  with  a 
little  dry  hay.  Do  this  and  failure  is  nearly  im- 
possible. Do  it  in  a  large  enough  way,  with  500  ewes 
in  charge  of  a  good  man  'and  it  will  pay  well.  If 
you  have  had  stomach  worms  among  your  sheep  and 
lambs,  try  for  one  year  keeping  them  in  a  cool,  airy 
barn  basement,  with  no  grass  whatever,  nor  weeds, 
in  their  small  yard  (they  need  no  yard  at  all  for  that 
matter)  and  see  what  splendid  lambs  you  will  get. 
Of  course  there  is  the  fear  that  the  ewes  may  get  too 
fat  to  breed  so  treated.  This  may  be  overcome  by 
taking  the  ewes  from  the  lambs  when  the  latter  are 
weaned  and  putting  them  out  on  rather  poor  pasture 
for  a  time,  or  in  some  way  naturally  reducing  their 
flesh  if  they  are  inclined  to  be  heavy  and  lifeless. 
Lambs  never  get  too  big  or  fat ;  growth  takes  care 
of  that. 

Alfalfa  for  Soiling  Swine. — When  a  rancher  I  had 
my  first  experience  with  soiling  swine.  I  kept  a  few 
old  sows  in  a  log  pen  and  each  day  cut  a  few  swaths 


SOILING  AND   PASTURE.  335 

of  green  alfalfa  and  threw  over  to  them.  With  no 
other  food  during  summer  the  sows  and  pigs  thrived 
quite  well.  They  did  not  fatten  at  all,  but  the  sows 
gave  milk  and  the  pigs  grew.  Later  in  the  season 
when  corn  ripened  they  were  given  corn  or  squashes 
in  addition  to  their  alfalfa  and  then  they  fattened 
off  readily. 

When  hogs  must  be  kept  in  pens  they  should  have 
green  stuff  abundantly  supplied.  There  is  prob- 
ably nothing  else  so  good  for  them  as  green  alfalfa, 
It  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  woody.  It  is  probable 
that  it  is  more  profitable  to 'cut  the  alfalfa  green 
and  feed  to  the  hogs  than  it  is  to  let  them  run  on 
it  when  land  is  worth  $100  per  acre  and  alfalfa  hay 
commands  $10  per  ton.  Where  land  is  cheap  and 
hay  is  cheap  and  alfalfa  is  a  plant  easily  established 
it  is  no  doubt  better  to  pasture  than  to  soil. 

Alfalfa  for  Poultry. — When  fowls  are  confined 
to  yards  they  thrive  much  better  when  fed  green 
stuff  and  there  is  nothing  they  relish  more  than 
green  alfalfa.  It  is,  moreover,  an  exceedingly  rich 
and  well  chosen  food  for  -them,  especially  for  laying 
hens  and  growing  chicks.  It  may  be  fed  to  them 
whole  or  cut  into  very  fine  bits,  when  they  will  con- 
sume nearly  all  of  it, 


AS  A  PASTURE  PLANT. 

It  may  almost  be  said  that  alfalfa  is  unfitted  for 
pasturing.  Grasses  grow  by  the  increase  of  the 
lower  parts  of  their  stems  and  blades.  They  there- 
fore do  not  suffer  from  being  nipped  off,  as  'they  can 
yet  push  up  from  below.  Alfalfa,  on  the  other  hand, 
grows  from  terminal  and  lateral  buds.  If  these  are 
bitten  off,  growth  must  cease  until  new  buds  can 
form  and  growth  starts  anew.  Again,  grasses  are 
safe  pasturage  and  alfalfa  a  risky  one,  because  of 
the  danger  of  animals,  in  their  greed,  so  gorging 
themselves  that  they  suffer  from  indigestion  and 
consequent  bloat. 

Notwithstanding  these  facts  very  many  farmers 
pasture  alfalfa  with  great  profit  and  almost  every 
man  growing  it  will  desire  to  pa&ture  it  more  or  less. 
The  brief  study  of  the  conditions  under  which  it 
may  be  most  safely  pastured  will  be  profitable. 

Care  in  Pasturing. — For  the  good  of  the  alfalfa, 
animals  must  never  run  on  the  field  when  it  is 
frozen  nor  when  it  is  soft  and  muddy.  To  tread  on 
frozen  alfalfa  crowns  is  to  destroy  them  in  most 
instances.  Therefore,  as  soon  -as  a  hard  freeze 
comes  all  stock  should  be  taken  away  from  the  al- 
falfa field,  and  the  gates  locked. 

Animals  must  not  be  permitted  to  gnaw  it  too 
close.  A  small  field  of  alfalfa  thrown  into  a  large 


AS   A   PASTURE   PLANT.  337 

grass  pasture  will  soon  be  destroyed,  without  afford- 
ing a  great  amount  of  feed,  because  stock  will  hardly 
eat  any  other  thing  while  they  can  get  the  alfalfa, 
and  it  will  have  no  chance  to  grow  at  all.  It  is 
hardly  safe  for  a  man  to  attempt  to  pasture  his 
alfalfa  while  it  is  in  the  experimental  stage.  He 
should  wait  until  he  has  established  fairly  wide 
breadths  of  it;  then  he  can  set  aside  portions  of  it 
for  that  purpose. 

Pasturing  and  Mowing. — A  combination  of  pas- 
turing and  mowing  off  is  most  economical  and 
satisfactory.  Divide  the  area  to  be  pastured  into 
three  lots.  Turn  out  stock  on  one,  and  when  they 
have  eaten  a  part  of  it,  turn  them  to  the  second  en- 
closure and  mow  off  the  first,  taking  away  what  they 
have  left.  There  are  always  parts  of  the  pasture 
more  palatable  than  other  parts ;  animals  thus  graze 
unevenly;  the  mower  evens  it  up,  and  what  was 
discarded  in  summer  proves  to  be  acceptable  in 
winter.  After  grazing  down  the  second  enclosure 
sufficiently,  the  animals  will  be  turned  to  the  third 
part,  while  the  mower  will  finish  cutting  the  second 
lot.  Then  after  a  time  they  will  come  back  to  the 
first  enclosure,  which  will  be  all  evenly  grown  up 
and  about  at  the  blooming  stage.  Managed  in  this 
way,  alfalfa  will  endure  grazing  for  many  years 
without  injury,  while  if  allowed  to  be  eaten  close  in 
spots  and  not  eaten  at  all  in  other  spots,  it  soon 
becomes  weakened  and  grass  invades  it  and  the 
good  stand  is  lost. 


338  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

Danger  from  Bloat. — There  are  stages  in  the 
growth  of  alfalfa  when  it  is  much  more  apt  to  bloat 
stock  than  at  other  times.  When  the  soil  is  moist 
and  the  weather  warm  and  growth  rapid,  when  the 
soil  is  very  rich  also,  there  is  induced  a  very  rank 
growth  that  is  quite  apt  to  cause  trouble.  This 
danger  is  worst  when  the  alfalfa  is  young  and  ten- 
der ;  increasing  safety  comes  with  advancing  matur- 
ity until,  when  it  is  thoroughly  in  bloom,  there  seems 
little  danger  to  animals  accustomed  to  its  use. 

Perhaps  there  is  never  absolute  safety  in  pastur- 
ing sheep  and  cows  on  alfalfa,  yet  the  writer  has  for 
many  years  pastured  valuable  sheep  all  summer  on 
alfalfa,  with  a  run  on  grass  when  they  wished;  and 
in  some  years  his  loss  has  been  so  trifling  as  to 
be  not  worth  considering,  while  occasionally  it  has 
been  necessary  to  take  the  sheep  off  for  a  time  to 
allow  the  alfalfa  to  harden  up.  In  several  years ' 
experience  with  cattle  he  has  lost  but  one,  and 
that  one  from  permitting  it  to  graze  very  im- 
mature alfalfa  that  had  been  mown  about  two  weeks 
and  that,  owing  to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  was  mak- 
ing a  very  rank  growth.  There  is  never  danger  with 
pigs  so  that  they  are  not  too  hungry  when  first 
turned  on  the  alfalfa,  nor  with  horses  if  it  is  not  too 
watery  and  immature. 

It  is,  however,  an  art  to  accustom  animals  to  eat- 
ing alfalfa  in  pasture.  The  plants  should  have  made 
a  considerable  growth,  almost  having  reached  the 
blooming  stage,  before  being  turned  on. 


AS   A   PASTURE   PLANT.  339 

Turn  on  Full. — The  animals,  whether  sheep,  cattle 
or  swine,  should  not  be  hungry  when  turned  on. 
They  should  be  allowed  to  fill  themselves  completely 
with  bluegrass,  should  have  a  ration  of  their  usual 
grain,  if  they  are  eating  grain;  then  at  about  ten 
o'clock,  when  they  do  not  care  to  graze  longer,  they 
should  be  introduced  to  the  alfalfa  pasture.  It  is 
well  to  stay  with  them  until  they  have  eaten  what 
they  will  of  the  new  forage  and  laid  down  to  digest 
it;  there  will  not  be  much  tendency  to  bloat,  but 
should  there  be  it  is  well  to  be  on  hand.  Being 
turned  on  at  this  time  of  day  and  stage  of  repletion, 
they  will  not  consume  very  much  alfalfa  at  first,  and 
this  is  what  you  desire.  Once  filled  up,  the  subse- 
quent treatment  is  charmingly  simple:  they  must 
never  again  be  taken  away  from  the  alfalfa,  night 
or  day,  rain  or  shine !  The  philosophy  is  that  treated 
thus  they  never  become  hungry  and  thus  take  in  but 
a  little  alfalfa  forage  at  a  time. 

The  usual  practice  of  turning  in  for  fifteen  min- 
utes the  first  day,  half  an  hour  the  second  day,  an 
hour  the  third  day  and  so  on,  is  the  worst  possible 
to  conceive,  as  it  brings  the  cattle  every  time  hungry 
to  the  field,  and  in  fifteen  minutes  they  can  pack 
an  immense  amount  of  alfalfa  into  their  stomachs. 
We  have  permitted  sheep  to  leave  the  alfalfa  fields 
during  the  heat  of  the  day  and  come  to  the  barn 
for  shade  and  water.  About  ten  in  the  morning, 
earlier  during  very  hot  weather,  they  would  do  this, 
and  then  at  three  or  four  in  the  afternoon  they  would 


340  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

be  driven. back  to  the  field.  Thus  they  were  on  al- 
falfa all  night  and  most  of  the  day,  and  often  with 
alfalfa  hay  in  the  barn  to  eat  dry  while  sheltering 
fcom  the  sun. 

Advantages  of  Grazing  Alfalfa. — The  advantages 
of  alfalfa  grazing  for  sheep  are  great.  Grazing 
high  they  escape  all  sorts  of  intestinal  para- 
sites that  so  afflict  sheep  in  America.  The  deadly 
stomach  worm,  once  a  scourge  on  Woodland  Farm, 
has  almost  completely  disappeared  since  alfalfa  pas- 
ture has  become  our  reliance.  These  parasites  find 
ttieir  way  to  the  ground  from  the  droppings  of  the 
ewes;  the  germs  develop  there  somewhat  and  per- 
haps by  entwining  about  the  moist  grass  are  again 
taken  into  the  stomachs  of  the  flock,  this  time  to  dis- 
tress the  lambs.  Intestinal  parasites  have  very  nearly 
ruined  the  sheep  industry  of  the  east.  The  old  pas- 
tures become  deadly.  Alfalfa  pasture  has  certainly 
been  proved  to  be  a  remedy. 

In  a  flock  of  a  hundred  ewes  with  their  lambs,  it 
has  been  usual  to  lose,  presumably  from  alfalfa 
bloat,  from  one  to  half  a  dozen  sheep  and  lambs 
during  the  summer.  From  stomach  worms  it  was 
once  my  experience  to  lose  twenty,  and  half  the 
others  to  be  seriously  injured  by  the  presence  of  the 
insidious  scourge.  The  nodular  disease  afeo  seems 
held  in  check  by  alfalfa  pasture,  and  tape  worm  is 
unknown  in  our  flock,  for  no  other  reason  that  I  can 
see  than  that  of  the  grazing  of  alfalfa.  Of  course, 
when  grazing  alfalfa  one  should  be  careful  that  the 


AS  A   PASTURE   PLANT.  341 

sheep  do  not  infect  themselves  in  other  small  grassy 
lots  where  the  short,  sweet,  rich  grass  may  tempt 
them  to  bite  close,  for  in  these  places  infection 
lodges. 

Curing  Alfalfa  Bloat. — Very  often  animals  slight- 
ly bloated  recover  unaided.  If,  however,  there  is 
considerable  distress  the  attendant  should  go  at  once 
to  their  aid.  With  sheep,  take  a  stick  about  two 
inches  in  diameter,  or  a  large  cob,  insert  it  between 
the  jaws,  thus  keeping  the  mouth  open,  raise  the  head 
and  gently  press  the  sides  between  the  knees.  This 
will  usually  result  in  causing  the  gas  to  be  belched 
off.  A  half  pint  of  raw  linseed  oil,  with  a  teaspoon- 
ful  of  turpentine  added,  is  a  relief,  and  the  same 
mixture  in  larger  doses  relieves  cattle.  Sweet  milk 
is  said  to  relieve  bloat  in  sheep. 

Tapping  With  Trocar. — When  it  is  evident,  from 
the  extreme  tension  of  the  paunch,  that  this  will  not 
be  enough  to  save  the  animal,  recourse  must  be  had 
to  the  trochar.  At  a  point  on  the  left  side  the  walls 
of  the  paunch  and  the  skin  unite  in  the  cow  and  are 
close  to  each  other  in  the  sheep.  Here  an  insertion 
may  be  made  without  causing  the  animal  much  pain, 
and  a  tube  put  in  to  allow  the  gas  to  escape.  When 
pasturing  either  alfalfa  or  red  clover,  a  trocar 
should  always  be  at  hand,  for  there  is  no  telling 
when  it  may  be  needed.  The  trocar  is  better  than 
the  knife,  as  it  opens  a  small  hole  and  there  is  no 
danger  of  opening  one  too  large;  then,  when  the 
point  is  withdrawn  the  tube  remains  in  the  open- 


342  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

ing,  through  which  the  gas  escapes.  In  using  any 
improvised  tube  one  must  hold  to  it  or  it  may  slip 
completely  within  the  paunch  and  be  lost,  perhaps 
to  the  serious  injury  of  the  animal,  though  the 
writer  once  lost  a  piece  of  cane  reed  six  inches  long 
in  the  paunch  of  a  sheep  with  no  ill  effect  that  he 
could  ever  discover,  but  what  became  of  it  has 
been  always  a  mystery  to  him.  After  using  the  tro- 
char,  one  should  liberally  disinfect  the  wound  with 
turpentine  or  some  carbolic  disinfectant. 

Cold  Water  or  Ice. — In  cases  of  bloat  there  is 
always  considerable  heat  about  the  paunch,  and 
indeed  the  rapid  fermentation  must  produce  an  en- 
tirely unnatural  heat  which  if  it  can  be  reduced  may 
of  itself  cure  the  complaint.  I  learned  from  a  Mor- 
mon ranch  woman  many  years  ago  that  ice  heaped 
on  the  distended  back  of  a  bloated  cow,  with  some 
kneading  and  keeping  the  head  up  hill,  was  a  ready 
relief.  This  occurred  when  the  ranch  cows  used  to 
graze  on  frosted  alfalfa  in  the  fall  and  ice  was  at 
hand  in  the  irrigating  ditches.  I  have  cured  bloated 
ewes  by  pouring  cold  water  on  the  region  of  the 
paunch. 

This  much  space  has  been  given  the  subject  of 
bloat,  not  because  it  is  so  very  dangerous,  but  be- 
cause when  one  has  a  case  of  it  on  hand  he 
is  anxious  to  know  at  once  what  to  do.  The  writer 
has  noted  that  in  years  when  he  has  had  trouble 
from  bloat  on  his  alfalfa,  his  neighbors  have  had  as 
much  trouble  and  more  loss  from  bloat  on  their  red 


AS   A   PASTURE   PLANT.  343 

clover,  and  what  is  good  treatment  for  one  instance 
is  f  or  the  other. 

Alfalfa  Dangerous  After  Frost. — There  is  a  time 
when  succulent  alfalfa  may  be  frosted  and  afterward 
become  very  indigestible  and  dangerous  to  pasture 
off  green ;  in  fact,  not  the  best  food  when  made  into 
hay.  It  is  therefore  a  safe  rule  to  take  all  stock  off 
the  alfallfa  pastures  after  a  hard  frost  at  once  and 
for  the  rest  of  the  year.  It  is  well  to  leave  a  growth 
of  twelve  inches  to  catch  the  snow  and  protect  the 
crown  and  the  greatly  increased  yield  the  next  year 
will  much  more  than  offset  the  small  loss  from  not 
eating  every  bit  of  the  crop  in  the  fall. 

Mixing  Grasses  With  Alfalfa. — Eeference  has 
previously  been  made  to  the  value  of  grass  mixed 
with  alfalfa  pasture  when  it  is  to  be  grazed,  and  in 
my  experience  certain  alfalfa  fields  that  have  in  them 
considerable  bluegrass  and  brome  grass  have  never 
given  one  case  of  bloated  stock.  Alfalfa  sown  thinly 
is  also  much  less  apt  to  bloat  stock. 

Grazing  Spring  Lambs  on  Alfalfa. — I  have  for 
some  years  made  a  practice  of  growing  winter 
lambs.  All  the  ewes  would  not  yean  early  enough 
to  get  their  lambs  off  on  the  early  markets,  so  those 
born  in  March  and  April  would  be  left  to  go  to  pas- 
ture. It  has  been  my  practice  to  put  these  ewes 
and  their  lambs  on  alfalfa  pasture  about  the  first  of 
May,  some  years  a  few  days  later,  and  feed  the 
lambs  ear  corn  in  creeps.  These  lambs  have  made 
astonishing  growth  thus  treated,  averaging  above 


344  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

80  pounds  in  June,  and  the  ewes  without  grain  have 
fattened  while  suckling  their  lambs.  Lambs  eating 
corn  and  suckling  their  mothers  have  never  suffered 
from  bloat  in  my  experience. 

Grazing  Pigs  on  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  is  the  natural 
food  for  swine.  The  pregnant  sow  on  alfalfa  pas- 
ture generally  needs  no  grain  at  all,  at  most  but  a 
trifle  of  corn  should  she  be  in  a  thin  condition  when 
turned  to  pasture.  Pigs  born  from  sows  pasturing 
alfalfa  are  unusually  fine  and  strong.  After  they 
come  the  sows  need  a  little  more  grain  than  before 
and  suckle  profusely.  The  little  pigs  enjoy  the 
sweet,  tender  herbage  and  thrive  on  it,  but  they  too 
should  have  a  daily  allowance  of  grain.  This  is  not 
absolutely  necessary,  as  in  Colorado,  Western  Kan- 
sas and  Nebraska  many  hog  ranches  are  found  where 
no  grain  is  produced  or  fed  winter  or  summer,  only 
alfalfa  hay  dry  in  winter  and  alfalfa  pasture  in  sum- 
mer, but  the  pigs  are  often  sold  to  farmers  in  the 
cornbelt  to  be  fattened.  It  is  economy  to  feed  corn 
on  alfalfa  pasture.  Alfalfa  alone  is  too  one-sided  a 
ration ;  it  is  too  rich  in  protein  and  too  poor  in  starch 
and  fat.  It  builds  the  pig  long  and  lean  unless  corn 
is  added,  but  the  amount  of  corn  should  be  very 
much  less  than  is  needed  on  other  pasture.  In  Kan- 
sas the  state  agricultural  college  has  found  that 
"at  this  station,  pigs  were  pastured  throughout  the 
summer  on  alfalfa  with  a  light  feeding  of  corn. 
After  deducting  the  probable  gain  from  the  corn,  the 
gain  per  acre  from  the  alfalfa  pasture  was  776 


AS  A-  PASTURE   PLANT.  345 

pounds  of  pork.  One  lot  of  fattening  hogs  was  fed 
all  the  corn  they  would  eat,  another  lot  all  the  grain 
and  dry  alfalfa  hay  they  would  eat.  The  lot  hav- 
ing alfalfa  hay  made  a  gain  of  868  pounds  of  pork 
per  ton  of  alfalfa  hay." 

Pasture  for  Horses. — There  is  nothing  else  so 
good  for  horses  as»  alfalfa  pasture.  Working  horses 
keep  in  good  flesh  and  work  well,  with  a  trifle  of 
grain  added  to  their  daily  run  on  alfalfa ;  especially 
is  it  good  for  mares  and  their  foals.  The  mares 
give  a  great  abundance  of  milk  when  having  alfalfa 
green  and  the  colts  make  a  growth  and  development 
that  is  surprising.  When  visiting  the  great  ranches 
along  the  Sacramento  and  San  Joaquin  Valleys  in 
California,  I  was  constantly  astonished  at  the  size  and 
quality  of  Thoroughbred  and  standard-bred  horses 
and  colts  running  on  alfalfa  pasture  in  summer  and 
wintering  on  alfalfa  hay.  There  is  such  an  abun- 
dance of  flesh  and  bone-forming  material  in  alfalfa 
that  colts  develop  naturally  and  to  their  utmost 
when  fed  upon  it.  No  ill  results  whatever  have  ever 
been  observed  by  myself  from  depasturing  alfalfa 
by  horses,  though  I  would  not  put  them  on  it  too 
early  in  spring  nor  when  too  hungry. 

As  a  Bee  Pasture. — In  California,  Nevada,  Utah 
and  Colorado,  alfalfa  honey  is  a  staple  article  of 
commerce.  I  have  seen  some  marvelous  things  in 
the  way  of  alfalfa-fed  bees.  At  Gov.  John  Sparks' 
ranch,  at  Reno<,  Nev.,  the  bees  took  possession  of  the 
space  between  the  weatherboarding  and  the  plaster 


ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

of  the  dwelling.  From  this  they  were  dislodged  from 
time  to  time  and  robbed,  at  one  time  yielding  near 
a  ton  of  honey.  At  the  Chowchilla  ranch,  near  Mer- 
ced, Cal.,  bees  inhabited  a  hollow  wall  of  a  granary 
and  their  store  yielded  3,000  pounds  of  honey  at  one 
time.  Stranger  still,  in  the  peak  of  the  roof  of  a 
farm  building  there  hung  pendant  a  mass  of  comb 
and  honey  at  least  twelve  inches  thick  and  eight 
feet  long,  hanging  down  three  feet  or  more.  This 
was  about  to  be  removed  for  fear  it  would  fall  of  its 
own  weight. 

In  Colorado-,  the  production  of  honey  has  fallen 
somewhat  in  the  sheep-feeding  district,  since  alfalfa 
has  been  cut  earlier,  before  it  has  oome  mutfh  into 
bloom.  This  fact  of  necessary  earlier  cutting  will 
prevent  the  bees  making  so  much  use  of  alfalfa  in 
the  east  a-s  they  do  in  the  pastoral  regions  of  Cali- 
fornia. 

Experiments  made  by  the  Kansas  experiment  sta- 
tion showed  that  bees  were  very  necessary  to  the 
development  of  alf-alfa  seed.  Whether  there  may 
not  be  other  insects  than  the  honey-bee  that  assist 
in  this  work  is  a  question  yet  to  be  definitely  de- 
termined. It  is  certain  that  alfalfa  seed  is  abun- 
dantly produced  only  in  dry  seasons.  Possibly  in 
dry  seasons  there  is  more  honey  in  the  blooms  and 
therefore  more  to  entice  the  bees. 

Alfalfa  for  Cattle  Grazing. — Reference  has  been 
made  already  to  the  practices  of  ranchmen  in  Cali- 
fornia where  it  is  not  uncommon  to  see  thousands 


AS   A   PASTURE   PLANT.  347 

of  cattle  grazing  on  rich  alfalfa  pastures.  There  is 
little  bloat  among  these  cattle,  partly  because  of  the 
presence  of  annual  grasses  in  the  alfalfa  and  partly 
because  of  the  system  of  management.  It  is  a  cus- 
tom with  these  ranchmen  when  bringing  hungry  cat- 
tle to  an  alfalfa  field  to  mow  down  a  block  of  about 
40  acres,  turning  the  cattle  in  as  soon  as  it  has  wilted 
somewhat.  When  once  the  cattle  are  stuffed  full  of 
the  half -dry  alfalfa  hay  they  are  permitted  to  begin 
eating  the  green  stuff,  and  will,  it  is  said,  eat  al- 
ternately of  the  green  and  the  dry.  Or  sometimes 
they  are  turned  in  a  field  that  has  been  all  mown 
down  and  eat  of  the  dry  till  the  green  comes  up 
through,  when  they  eat  of  whichever  they  choose. 
The  losses  of  Henry  Miller,  who  annually  pastures 
many  thousands  of  cattle  on  alfalfa,  are  reported 
to  be  less  than  1%  from  all  causes,  bloat  included. 

The  danger  of  bloat  increases  according  to  region. 
There  are  places  where  cattle  bloat  badly,  other 
places  where  there  is  little  if  any  bloat  from  feeding 
off  green  alfalfa.  The  reason  for  this  is  not  under- 
stood. It  is  certain  that  pastures  containing  a  mix- 
ture of  alfalfa  and  grass  are  much  less  dangerous 
than  those  composed  of  pure  alfalfa. 


ALFALFA  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA. 

It  is  in  South  America  that  alfalfa  grazing  has 
reached  its  greatest  development.  From  the  special 
report  of  Frank  W.  Bicknell  to  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  in  1904  and  from  letters 
I  summarize  the  following  information : 

Alfalfa  has  redeemed  to  profitable  use  millions  of  acres  of 
Argentine  land  that  would  otherwise  be  unproductive.  Alfalfa 
sends  the  Argentine  steer  to  market  a  year  younger  than  when 
the  native  grasses  were  relied  upon  exclusively.  In  many  parts 
of  the  country,  especially  in  the  north,  it  has  made  money  for  the 
small  colonists  or  farmers  who  have  cut  it  and  sold  it  for  export 
or  for  domestic  use.  Cattle  raisers  have  learned  its  value  in  a 
dry  cold  winter  when  the  pastures  have  failed,  and  but  for  the 
alfalfa  hay,  put  up  by  the  provident  against  such  an  emergency, 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  cattle  would  starve 

It  is  the  ambition  of  nearly  every  ranchman  or  estanciero  to 
get  as  much  of  his  place  into  alfalfa  as  possible,  and  the  area 
of  pasture  is  increasing  enormously  every  year.  As  soon  as  a 
brief  experiment  demonstrates  the  adaptability  of  a  new  region  to 
alfalfa  there  is  a  grand  rush  to  get  in  and  land  jumps  up  incred- 
ibly in  value.  Thousands  of  acres  often  change  hands  several 
times  in  a  year  with  valuations  doubling  at  each  exchange. 

John  Benitz  went  to  Argentina  from  California  35  years  ago 
and  with  his  brothers  has  been  successful  with  alfalfa  and  cattle. 
On  their  home  ranch  La  California,  about  70  miles  northwest  of 
the  city  of  Rosario,  they  were  the  pioneers  in  the  planting  of 
alfalfa.  He  now  (1904)  is  working  about  60,000  acres  of  alfalfa 
in  southern  Cordoba.  He  says:  "You  can  buy  a  league  (6,672 
acres)  of  virgin  land  for  $11,000  or  $1.65  per  acre,  and  by  spend- 
ing as  much  more  in  putting  it  in  alfalfa  have  a  ranch  that 
will  carry  3,000  cattle  and  keep  them  practically  fat  all  the  year 
round,  with  very  little  risk  from  drought  or  severe  winters." 

The  seasons  are  reversed  in  Argentine,  so  that 
sowing  in  the  fall  they  sow  in  March  or  April  usually. 
Sometimes  it  is  sown  later  with  some  cereal,  usually 

(348) 


ALFALFA  IN   SOUTH   AMERICA.  349 

barley,  wheat  or  flax,  sometimes  with  maize,  uncul- 
tivated. The  fall  seeding  (March  or  April)  is  best 
when  a  seedbed  can  be  prepared,  but  Argentine  sum- 
mers are  dry  and  hot  and  it  is  difficult  to  get  large 
areas  in  good  condition  before  rains  fall.  Therefore 
much  alfalfa  is  not  sown  till  June  or  July  (midwinter 
with  them)  when  rains  have  come  and  it  is  sown  with 
wheat  or  some  other  cereal.  It  requires  more  seed 
when  the  nurse  crop  is  used. 

This  seeding  with  wheat  seems  so  successful  that 
it  is  worth  experiment  in  our  Southern  states,  where 
a  similar  proceeding  might  result  as  well  if  the  soil 
were  made  rich  and  filled  with  lime,  both  of  which 
conditions  prevail  in  Argentina,  Of  this  practice 
in  Argentina  an  Englishman,  Mr.  Glyne  Williams, 
who  ranches  about  300  miles  south  of  Buenos  Aires, 
wrote  in  May,  1903 : 

Last  year  I  harvested  30  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  on  a 
piece  where  this  year  I  have  very  good  alfalfa.  *  *  *  The 
advantages  of  sowing  with  wheat  are  obvious  in  the  saving  of 
another  plowing,  and,  far  more  than  this,  in  the  saving  of 
time.  *  *  *  Until  I  see  more  decided  advantages  than  I 
do  at  present  in  favor  of  sowing  alone  I  intend  to  continue 
sowing  with  wheat,  so  long  as  the  latter  remains  a  paying  crop. 
As  far  as  my  experience  goes  there  is  no  objection  to  grazing 
alfalfa  with  cattle  while  it  is  young.  To  do  so  with  sheep 
and  eat  it  bare  would,  I  think,  be  dangerous  as  they  crop  it  too 
closely. 

John  Benitz,  already  quoted,  thus  records  his  ex- 
perience : 

I  have  had  the  best  results  by  breaking  up  virgin  camp  in 
the  fall  or  spring  and  at  once  cross  disking,  harrowing  and  sow- 
ing with  alfalfa  alone  and  covering  it  with  a  lighter  harrow. 
Alfalfa  so  sown  can  be  stocked  with  cattle  two  or  three  months 


350  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

after  Bowing,  fed  down  close  and  tramped.  Then  the  stock  should 
be  taken  off  for  a  few  months  and  the  alfalfa  will  grow  splen- 
didly. If  alfalfa  and  wheat  are  sown  together  cattle  can  not  be 
put  on  till  a  year  after,  but  if  sown  alone  cattle  can  be  put  on 
permanently  when  it  is  six  months  old. 

The  opinion  seems  general  in  Argentina  that  more 
or  less  feeding  is  good  for  alfalfa  when  it  is  young, 
certainly  by  the  time  that  it  is  five  or  six  months 
old  as  the  tramping  is  beneficial,  and  the  plants 
should  not  seed  the  first  year.  Sometimes  it  is  grazed 
with  sheep,  a  shepherd  keeping  them  moving  so  that 
it  will  not  be  grazed  too-  closely.  They  do  a  good 
job  of  weed  eradication  and  also  tramp  the  land  well. 
In  the  spring  it  is  not  possible  to  put  on  stock 
enough  to  keep  the  alfalfa  down  because  it  grows  so 
fast  and  the  arrangements  for  watering  the  cattle 
are  not  sufficient  for  the  numbers  that  would  be  re- 
quired. Mr.  Williams,  already  quoted,  had  at  one 
time  two  head  of  cattle  to  the  acre  and  was  at  the 
same  time  cutting  some  for  hay  from  the  same  field. 
Later  in  the  season  when  the  weather  became  very 
dry  the  alfalfa  would  keep  fewer,  or  no  animals  for  a 
time,  then  recourse  would  be  had  to  stacks. 

Seeding  in  Argentina. — From  9  to  35  Ibs.  of  seed 
per  acre  are  used,  usually  from  11  to  18  Ibs.  Seed 
is  harvested  plentifully  in  many  parts  of  Argentina. 
In  some  places  the  alfalfa  is  allowed  to  re-seed  itself. 
The  usual  price  is  from  $3.50  to  $8.00  per  bushel 
(60  Ibs.). 

Life  of  Argentina  Alfalfa. — It  is  said  that  in  some 
parts  of  Argentina  alfalfa  will  endure  for  25  years 


ALFALFA   IN   SOUTH   AMERICA.  851 

when  mown.  On  the  other  hand,  close  feeding  and 
hard  seasons  will  destroy  its  value  in  about  three  or 
four  years.  Native  grasses  come  up  in  it  and  ulti- 
mately weaken  it.  In  some  colonies,  notable  upper 
Santa  Fe,  it  is  more  permanent.  There  at  the  Jewish 
colony  there  are  fields  15  years  old  yet  in  fine  con- 
dition. The  climate  there  is  hot,  with  dry  summers. 

It  is  a  curious  commentary  on  the  absurd  rela- 
tion between  what  the  farmer  gets  and  the  consumer 
pays  that  in  Buenos  Aires  'alfalfa  hay  retails  at 
about  $10  to  $15  per  ton,  the  freight,  baling,  haul- 
ing and  commissions  absorbing  the  difference  be- 
tween that  and  the  $2.40  that  the  rancher  receives. 

Corn  also  is  being  increasingly  grown  and  fed  in 
Argentine.  The  beef  is  'all  killed  and  frozen  there, 
exported  then  mostly  to  England.  Good  steers  are 
worth  around  $30  to  $60  each.  Feeders,  about  two 
years  old,  are  bought  for  from  $8  to  $12  per  head, 
very  thin  in  flesh,  and  placed  on  alfalfa  pasture  for 
six  to  ten  months  or  sometimes  -a  little  longer. 

Cattle  Carrying  Capacity. — Alfalfa  njever  does 
less  than  double  the  capacity  of  pastures  however 
rich  they  may  be.  Often  it  multiplies  the  capacity 
of  the  pasture  from  three  to  six  times.  In  some 
parts  3,000  cattle  are  being  fattened  on  one  league 
(6,672  acres)  of  land,  and  another  thousand  or  more 
might  be  added  if  breeding  cattle  were  carried.  Once 
these  camps  would  carry  only  about  800  cattle  to  the 
league. 

It  is  found  impossible  to  cut  as  much  alfalfa  as 


352  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

ought  to  be  cut  because  of  the  immensity  of  the 
fields  and  the  dearth  of  labor.  It  is  best  there,  as 
elsewhere,  to  mow  and  stack  the  surplus,  letting 
the  new  growth  come  up  strong  and  fresh. 

If  there  is  any  difficulty  in  pasturing  alfalfa  in 
Argentina  arising  from  its  liability  to  bloat  animals 
I  have  been  unable  to  discover  any  mention  of  it.  in 
reports  from  that  country.  It  is  probable  that  there 
is  some  loss  when  hungry  cattle  are  suddenly  turned 
to  rank  alfalfa.  Being  constantly  on  it,  and  having 
access  to  native  grasses  more  or  less  mixed  with  the 
alfalfa  the  loss  is  probably  very  slight. 

Finishing  Cattle  on  Alfalfa. — The  carrying  capa- 
city of  alfalfa  pasture  in  Argentina  is  estimated  at 
from  2  to  4%  animals  per  square  (4.17  acres)  the 
year  round,  or  in  round  numbers  from  %  to  1  ani- 
mal per  acre.  An  animal  there  always  means  a  beef 
animal,  and  it  is  estimated  that  a  pasture  will  carry 
four  times  as  many  sheep  as  it  will  cattle.  This 
is  a  curious  estimate  as  it  is  usual  to  estimate  8 
sheep  .to  one  steer.  This  estimate  is  for  breeding 
cattle.  For  fattening  it  must  be  reduced  slightly. 
Except  in  the  winter  alfalfa  pasture  will  fatten  three 
to  five  rough  animals  per  square,  in  five  to  eight 
months.  Rough,  thin  work  oxen  are  fattened  in 
that  time.  There  is  a  large  business  of  raising  feed- 
ers on  poorer  lands  north  or  south  on  native  grasses 
and  driving  tliem  in  great  herds  to  the  alfalfa  fields 
to  be  fattened.  As  the  beasts  approach  within  a 
few  months  of  the  age  at  Which  they  should  start 


ALFALFA  IN  SOUTH  AMERICA.  353 

for  market  they  are  shifted  about  from  one  pasture 
to  another  and  are  given  the  best  on  the  place.  At 
other  times  they  are  not  moved  much  but  are  left  in 
one  large  pasture  sufficient  for  their  needs  for  a 
year. 

In  the  summer  much  alfalfa  is  allowed  to  go  to 
waste  because  it  is  not  always  practicable  to  put 
on  enough  cattle  to  eat  it  all,  as  there  would  not  be 
feed  enough  in  the  winter.  Some  cutting  of  pastured 
alfalfa  is  often  done.  After  the  first  spring  growth 
has  been  eaten  down  the  cattle  are  taken  away  for 
a  few  weeks,  and  hay  is  put  up,  with  a  temporary 
fence  around  the  stacks.  In  winter  when  feed  gets 
short  these  fences  are  often  taken  away  and  cattle 
allowed  to  help  themselves,  though  some  ranchmen 
practice  a  less  wasteful  method  of  feeding. 

These  ranchmen  have  learned  by  experience  that 
the  alfalfa  will  be  better  in  the  winter  and  will  live 
longer  if  it  is  not  eaten  down  closely  in  the  summer 
but  is  allowed  to  grow  to  its  full  height. 

The  following  estimate  of  cost  of  making  alfalfa 
hay  in  Argentina  gives  clue  to  labor  conditions  and 
wages  down  there.  The  estimate  is  from  the  Jewish 
colony  at  Mosesville,  100  miles  northwest  of  the  city 
of  Santa  Fe: 

Price  in  stack,  per  ton $2.40 

Cost  of  mowing  with  machine $0.36 

Raking-,  gathering1,  stacking 0 . 71 

Total  cost  of  making  hay $1.07 

Net  profit  per  ton $1 . 33 


ALFALFA  FOR  THE  SILO. 

The  question  is  often  asked:  "What  of  alfalfa 
silage?"  The  answer  is  that  it  makes  good  silage,  if 
it  is  put  into  the  silo  in  the  right  condition,  and  the 
silo  is  a  good  one.  It  is  not  always  wise  to  make 
silage  of  alfalfa  rather  than  hay.  Corn  makes  good 
silage.  CoTn  is  easily  grown  on  alfalfa  sod.  Corn  is 
needed  to  balance  alfalfa.  Corn  is  somewhat  cheaper 
to  handle  and  put  into  the  silo,  perhaps,  although 
there  are  conflicting  opinions  here.  Alfalfa  is  easily 
cured  in  most  countries,  and  where  corn  silage  is  fed 
there  is  need  of  dry  alfalfa  hay.  So  as  a  rule  I  ad- 
vise that  alfalfa  be  made  into  hay  and  corn  (maize) 
made  into  silage.  We  do  not  know  all  about  alfalfa 
silage  yet.  I  have  made  it,  accidentally,  in  the  stack, 
and  can  testify  that  the  cattle  relished  it.  I  have 
seen  it  made  in  California,  where  it  was  desired  be- 
cause the  fermentation  softened  the  barbs  on  the  ac- 
companying foxtail  grass,  and  I  have  seen  more  or 
less  of  it  in  various  sections. 

Conditions  of  Silage  Making. — The  present  state 
of  information  seems  to  be  that  alfalfa  should  be  in 
full  bloom  before  being  cut  for  silage.  Immature 
alfalfa  is  liable  to  become  acid  and  have  disagree- 
able odor  and  taste.  It  should  get  fairly  mature 
and  be  -cut  with  the  dew  on  and  raked  and  hurried 
to  the  silo.  The  first  crop  is  best.  It  ought  to  be 

(354) 


ALFALFA  FOR  THE   SILO.  355 

cut  in  short  lengths  as  it  packs  better  and  keeps 
better.  It  is  good  food  for  cows,  calves  and  pigs. 
It  is  by  some  especially  recommended  for  pigs. 

Steam  Cured  Silage. — Perfect  silage  could  prob- 
ably be  made  from  alfalfa  by  the  steam  curing  pro- 
cess. This  consists  of  filling  the  silo  and  imme- 
diately turning  into  the  center  >of  the  mass,  low 
down,  a  volume  of  steam.  Steam  continues  to  enter 
until  all  the  silage  clear  to  the  top  is  of  a  tempera- 
ture of  about  2.12°.  In  making  silage  by  this  opera- 
tion the  bottom  of  the  silo  should  not  be  concrete 
as  much  moisture  will  come  from  the  condensing 
steam. 

Silage  in  Rainy  Regions. — Men  have  reported  cut- 
ting alfalfa  while  rain  was  falling,  raking  and  put- 
ting it  directly  into  the  silo  with  good  results.  The 
chief  hope  of  the  silo  for  alfalfa  is  for  regions  where 
there  is  excessive  rainfall  at  time  when  the  first  crop 
should  be  cut.  In  Louisiana  and  Mississippi  one 
finds  these  conditions. 

In  passing  it  may  be  mentioned  that  in  silo  build- 
ing only  good  silos  are  worth  considering.  Those 
of  concrete  are  cheapest  in  the  long  run,  and  silos  of 
thin  concrete  walls,  well  reinforced  with  steel,  then 
coated  on  the  inside  with  pitch  or  black  asphaltum 
paint  till  they  have  a  glossy  surface,  keep  silage  ex- 
ceedingly well. 


BALING  ALFALFA  HAY. 

A  few  men  report  success  in  baling  alfalfa  right 
from  the  windrow  or  cock  in  the  field,  then  piling 
it  loosely  in  such  manner  that  air  circulates  freely 
between  the  bales.  Most  experiments  with  baling 
alfalfa  hay  from  the  field  have  been  unsuccessful. 

To  cure  the  hay  in  the  field  as  well  as  one  can,  then 
to  stack  or  put  in  the  mow  for  a  month,  or  till  it  has 
gone  safely  through  its  sweat,  is  the  only  sure  way 
of  getting  hay  ready  for  the  baler. 

Where  a  little  salt  has  been  used,  say  10  Ibs.  to  a 
ton  of  hay,  the  leaves  will  hold  on  a  little  better  dur- 
ing the  baling  process. 

Air  Circulation. — There  is  a  new  machine  making 
a  round  bale  with  a  hole  through  it  lengthwise.  This 
baler  is  meant  for  use  in  the  field.  It  is  claimed  that 
with  this  bale  there  is  less  mold  than  with  the  square 
bale.  I  hope  the  claim  may  prove  well  founded. 
Dealers  prefer  small  bales  of  alfalfa. 

In  storing  baled  hay  set  the  bales  on  edge,  as 
brick  are  set  up,  and  allow  some  space  between  bales 
so  that  air  can  penetrate.  Never  lay  bales  on  the 
ground ;  have  a  circulation  of  air  always  under  them 
and  around  them.  It  is  said  to  be  much  better  in 
loading  cars  to  set  the  bales  up  edgeways,  not  to 
lay  them  flat,  and  that  there  will  be  less  mold  so 
treated. 

(356) 


BALING  ALFALFA  HAY.  357 

Hay  Dealers'  Classifications. — The  National  Hay 
Association  adopted  in  1905  the  following  classifica- 
tion for  alfalfa  hay : 

Choice  Alfalfa — Shall  be  reasonably  fine,  leafy 
alfalfa,  of  bright  green  color,  properly  cured,  sound, 
sweet  and  well  baled. 

No.  1  Alfalfa — Shall  be  coarse  alfalfa  of  bright 
green  color,  or  reasonably  fine,  leafy,  of  good  color, 
and  may  contain  five  per  cent  of  foreign  grasses; 
must  be  well  baled,  sound  and  sweet. 

No.  2  Alfalfa— Shall  include  alfalfa  somewhat 
bleached,  but  of  fair  color,  reasonably  leafy,  not 
more  than  one-eighth  foreign  grasses;  must  be 
sound  and  well  baled. 

No.  3  Alfalfa — Shall  include  bleached  alfalfa,  or 
alfalfa  mixed  with  not  to  exceed  one-fourth  foreign 
grasses,  but  when  mixed  must  be  of  fair  color,  sound 
and  well  baled. 

No-Grade  Alfalfa — Shall  include  all  alfalfa  not 
good  enough  for  other  grades,  caked,  musty,  grassy 
or  threshed. 


FEEDING  VALUE  OF  THE  HAY. 

Alfalfa  has  high  feeding  value.  This  arises  from 
its  digestibility  and  its  composition.  Alfalfa  is  rich 
in  digestible  protein.  Protein  is  the  substance  in 
foods  that  goes  to  build  red  flesh  and  blood,  to  make 
nerve  and  brain.  There  is  much  bone-making  ma- 
terial in  alfalfa  also.  Thus  alfalfa  is  a  builder  of 
tissue,  of  muscle,  bone,  nerve,  brain.  It  is  a  food 
rich  in  nitrogen,  the  prime  component  of  protein. 
It  is  because  of  its  alliance  with  the  bacteria  that 
it  is  able  to  store  itself  so  full  of  this  nitrogen.  We 
have  no  other  forage  so  good,  so  rich  in  protein. 
And  protein  in  foods  is  what  costs.  Carbon  is  cheap 
enough.  We  get  carbon,  the  heat-maker,  the  stuff 
that  makes  fat,  in  corn  (maize),  in  most  sorts  of  hay, 
in  alfalfa  also,  as  it  has  nearly  enough  of  carbon 
or  carbohydrates  to  make  it  a  balanced  ration  in 
itself. 

Protein  the  Costly  Food  Element. — Protein  we 
must  have.  Especially  do  we  need  it  when  we  are 
growing  any  sort  of  young  animals  or  making  milk 
or  farming  for  eggs.  One  can  not  possibly  get 
growth  or  milk  without  protein  in  abundant  supply 
in  the  ration.  If  he  is  dependent  on  corn  for  his 
chief  food  supply  he  must  buy  his  protein.  A  great 
many  farmers  and  dairymen  are  buying  theirs. 
They  buy  wheat  bran,  about  as  rich  in  protein  as 

(358) 


FEEDING  VALUE   OF   THE   HAY.  359 

alfalfa,  linseed  oil  meal,  quite  a  little  richer  than  al- 
falfa in  protein,  or  cottonseed  meal,  richest  of  all, 
but  a  dangerous  feed  in  unskillful  hands.  Thus  they 
compound  rations  that  give  them  good  results,  but 
the  cost  eats  up  the  profit. 

Substitute  for  Bran. — Wheat  bran  has  increased 
in  cost  by  leaps  and  bounds.  I  once  bought  it  for 
$8  per  ton.  I  then  fed  lambs  on  timothy  hay  and 
shredded  corn  stover,  with  corn  (maize)  for  grain 
food.  With  the  aid  of  the  purchased  bran,  supply- 
ing the  protein  lacking  in  the  other  food,  I  made 
good  lambs.  It  was  a  profitable  business.  Then  other 
feeders  found  out  that  bran  was  good  for  lambs, 
the  price  went  up,  steadily  higher  and  higher.  Had 
not  I  found  that  I  could  substitute  alfalfa  hay  for 
wheat  bran  and  get  just  as  good  lambs  I  would  have 
quit  the  business  or  gone  bankrupt.  Thousands  of 
feeders  and  dairymen  are  on  the  ragged  edge  of 
bankruptcy  today  because  of  their  large  feed  bills 
for  purchased  protein.  At  present  wheat  bran  is 
worth  about  $25  to  $30,  almost  anywhere  that  it  is 
fed. 

A  ton  of  it  is  only  better  than  a  ton  of  alfalfa 
hay  because  of  its  being  more  easily  eaten;  there  is 
the  same  nutriment  in  the  -alfalfa  hay,  very  nearly. 

Need  of  Protein. — Young  animals  almost  starve 
for  protein  very  often,  especially  where  corn  is 
cheap.  I  have  many  times  seen  pigs  in  the  feedlot 
after  cattle,  having  more  corn  than  they  could  con- 
sume, fat,  round,  yet  dwarfed,  half-starved.  Their 


360  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

bodies  could  not  grow,  they  could  only  fatten.  There 
was  not  enough  protein  in  the  corn  to  build  their 
frames  right.  To  feed  them  more  carbohydrates 
or  fat-making  material  without  first  building  their 
frames  was  sheer  waste.  There  is  wealth  of  ma- 
terial in  the  form  of  carbohydrates  or  fat-making, 
heat-making  elements.  What  nearly  all  farms  and 
feedlots  are  short  of  is  the  element  of  protein. 
With  it  in  abundant  supply  all  goes  well.  Pregnant 
animals  deliver  strong  young,  they  have  plenty  of 
milk,  the  young  grow  off  fast  and  thrifty,  good  form 
is  soon  grown,  abundant  life  and  spirits  are  seen  in 
the  animals,  fat  is  laid  on  well,  the  health  of  the 
animals  is  good  and  if  the  fortunate  owner  does  not 
make  money  it  is  because  of  some  other  factor  of 
trouble  entering  not  chargeable  to  the  feed  elements. 
Bread  from  Alfalfa  Meal. — I  have  already  told 
how  once  when  a  boy  I  chewed  alfalfa  hay  and  found 
it  good.  It  was  my  first  hint  as  to  the  richness 
of  alfalfa  as  a  feed.  I  have  no  idea  that  in  my  day 
men  will  make  bread  of  it,  yet  the  experiments  of 
some  Nebraska  college  boys  is  interesting,  and  I  here- 
with present  them,  as  related  in  a  daily  paper : 

When  Nebuchadnezzar  went  out  in  the  fields  many  thousands 
of  years  ago  and  ate  the  grass  like  an  ox  the  people  of  those 
ancient  days  regarded  him  as  insane.  But  like  many  other  great 
men  the  Babylonian  King  was  ahead  of  his  time,  for  were  he 
living  in  Omaha  today  he  would  be  hailed  with  joy  by  the 
members  of  the  Creighton  Alfalfa  Club.  The  young  men  of  this 
organization  are  eating  hay  and  getting  fat  on  it. 

Farm  experts  have  proved  that  alfalfa  contains  several  times 
as  much  nutriment  as  clover,  and  is  the  best  forage  for  cattle. 
That  it  was  also  a  food  for  man  was  never  realized  until  ex- 


FEEDING   VALUE   OF   THE  HAY.  361 

periments  were  made  at  Creighton  University,  the  leading  Cath- 
olic school  in  the  west.  That  alfalfa  as  a  food  has  passed  the 
joking  stage  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  more  than  a  score  of 
students  have  formed  a  club  to  demonstrate  its  value  to  the 
world.  More  than  that,  the  housewives  of  Omaha  have  started 
to  use  it  in  preparing  meals.  Its  enthusiasts  say  alfalfa  will 
revolutionize  the  food  question,  and  that  it  will  solve  the  serious 
problem  of  supplying  the  world  with  flour  a  few  decades  hence.  - 

The  alfalfa  is  carefully  selected,  and  the  bright  and  tender 
leaves  and  a  small  portion  of  the  upper  parts  of  the  stalks  are 
ground  together.  Then  they  are  run  through  a  bolting  machine 
that  turns  out  a  meal  almost  as  fine  as  flour  and  having  a  rich 
brown  color.  The  meal  is  then  bleached.  This  having  been 
done,  it  is  ready  to  go  to  the  culinary  department  of  the  college 
club.  There  it  is  cooked  into  a  large  number  of  palatable  dishes. 

There  are  alfalfa  gems,  and  they  are  so  tender  and  rich  when 
properly  cooked  that  they  almost  melt  in  the  mouth.  The  most 
delicate  muffins  cannot  compare  with  them.  They  are  light, 
palatable  and  easily  digestible.  Experts  who  have  studied  their 
value  as  food  say  that  a  man  can  make  a  meal  on  alfalfa  meal 
muffing  and  do  more  work  and  with  less  fatigue  than  he  could 
if  he  had  eaten  beefsteak,  bread  and  potatoes.  Cakes  of  all 
kinds  are  made  of  alfalfa  flour,  the  recipes  being  similar  to 
those  employed  in  the  construction  of  the  cakes  in  which  wheat 
flour  plays  the  leading  part.  For  every  day  bread  alfalfa  flour 
has  been  tried  at  the  club.  It  is  darker  than  wheat  flour.  The 
taste  is  most  delicious,  being  a  little  sweet,  and  is  much  more 
palatable  if  a  little  sugar  is  added  to  the  dough  before  it  goes 
into  the  baking  pans.  In  making  bread,  yeast  is  used  in  abdut 
the  same  proportions  as  in  the  manufacture  of  the  bread  made 
from  wheat  flour. 

It  may  be  that  the  day  will  come  when  we  will 
cease  eating  animals  and  when  that  day  comes  we 
may  possibly  take  to  alfalfa  meal;  at  present  it  is 
a  matter  of  some  interest  to  know  that  alfalfa  is 
actually  rich  enough  to  make  food  for  mankind. 
This  ought  to  give  us  a  clue  to  several  important 
facts.  One  is  as  to  its  value  in  nourishing  animals, 
the  other  that  one  can  feed  it  in  too  liberal  and 
wasteful  amounts.  Horses,  for  instance,  can  con- 


362  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

sume  more  alfalfa  than  they  need  and  more  than  is 
good  for  them.  Were  the  alfalfa  made  into  loaves 
of  bread  no  one  would  dream  of  filling  a  'horse's 
manger  full  of  these  loaves,  yet  it  is  all  too  common 
to  stuff  them  with  alfalfa  hay. 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 


Before  presenting  tables  of  exact  composition 
of  alfalfa  let  us  consider  its  relation  in  productivity 
of  nutrients  as  compared  with  other  common  feed 
stuffs.  The  following  table  is  from  a  bulletin  of 
the  New  York  Experiment  station  at  Geneva: 

In  order  to  show  the  high  feeding  value  of  the  alfalfa  from  an 
acre,  the  average  product  obtained  at  this  station  during  the 
three  years  past  is  stated  in  the  following  table  in  comparison 
with  the  food  supplied  by  several  of  our  best  common  fodder 
crops.  The  average  of  the  five  alfalfa  crops  was  34,104  pounds 
of  green  fodder,  or  8,035  pounds  of  dry  matter,  containing  1,411 
pounds  of  protein,  1,103  pounds  of  this  being  albuminoids: 


Yield  per  acre 
of  total  crop. 

Dry  matter 
per  acre. 

Total  digestible 
matter  per  acre. 

Digestible 
protein. 

Alfalfa  
Red  clover 

34,100  Ibs. 
18  000  Ibs 

8,000  Ibs. 
5  220  Ibs. 

5,280  Ibs. 
3  200  Ibs. 

875  Ibs. 
491  Ibs. 

Oats  and  peas  

13  000  Ibs. 

3,120  Ibs. 

2,521  Ibs. 

350  Ibs. 

Corn,  entire  plant  
Rutabagas  
Mangels 

28,000  Ibs. 
31,700  Ibs. 
25  000  Ibs 

5,800  Ibs. 
3,400  Ibs. 
3  500  Ibs. 

3,800  Ibs. 
3,000  Ibs. 
2  750  Ibs 

300  Ibs. 
279  Ibs. 
232  Ibs. 

Timothy  

10  000  Ibs. 

3  500  Ibs. 

2  000  Ibs. 

228  Ibs. 

Sugar  beets 

17  800  Ibs 

2  500  Ibs. 

1  800  Ibs 

213  Ibs 

The  acreage  yields  of  the  several  crops  given  above  are  such 
as  have  been  secured  at  different  places  in  this  part  of  the  coun- 
try from  Pennsylvania  to  Canada.  Sometimes  considerably 
larger  crops  have  been  obtained,  but  the  average  crop  would  be 
less  than  any  mentioned  in  the  table. 

This  is  indeed  a  wonderful  showing.  More  car- 
bohydrates than  corn  and  nearly  three  times  as  much 
protein!  And  the  crop  of  alfalfa,  once  the  field  is 
established,  can  be  grown  and  harvested  at  much 
less  expense  than  the  corn,  while  corn  impoverishes 
land  on  which  it  grows  and  alfalfa  enriches  it. 

(363) 


364 


ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 


In  order  to  illustrate  this  relative  production  of 
digestible  matter  more  graphically  we  present  two 
charts  showing  clearly  the  proportions  of  total  di- 
gestible nutrients  and  digestible  protein  in  each 
crop: 

TOTAL  DIGESTIBLE    MATTER  PER  ACRE.  POUNDS. 


ALFALF? 


RED  CLOVER 


TIMOTHY 


RUTABAGA  3000 


MANGEL 


SUGAR  BEETS 


LB5. 


3200 


I80O 


LBS. 


DIGESTIBLE   PROTEIN    PER  ACRE, 


RED  CLOVER 


OATS  ft  PEAS 


CORN 


SUGAR  BEETS 


Kansas  Experiments. — J.  T.  Willard,  of  the  Kan- 
sas experiment  station,  has  done  most  interesting 
work  in  investigation  of  the  nutritive  qualities  of  al- 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 


365 


falfa  and  also  of  the  loss  of  nutritive  properties 
through  exposure  to  the  weather.  We  quote  him 
from  Bulletin  155 : 


COMPOSITION  OF  ALFALFA  HAY. 


Water. 

Ash. 

Crude 
protein  . 

Pure 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen-free 
extract. 

Crude 
fat. 

First  stage,  about  ten  per 
cent  in  bloom  
Second  stage,  about  one- 
half  in  bloom  

8.77 
7.71 

9.54 
9.49 

16.88 

15.88 

13.56 
12.63 

29.38 
31.44 

34.01 
34.23 

1.42 
1.25 

Third  stage,  full  bloom  — 

8.29 

7.75 

13.23 

10.62 

33.11 

36.34 

1.30 

As  the  amounts  of  moisture  present  in  a  hay  are  variable  and 
not  a  characteristic  of  the  stage  of  maturity  of  the  green  plant, 
a  calculation  of  the  results  to  a  water-free  basis  is  often  advan- 
tageous in  making  comparisons.  Doing  this  for  the  three  sam- 
ples of  alfalfa  hay  we  get  the  following: 

COMPOSITION  OF  ALFALFA  HAY  CALCULATED  TO  A  WATER-FREE  BASIS 


Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Pure 
protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitro- 
gen -  free 
extract. 

Crude 
fat. 

First  stage  
Second  stage 

10.45 
10.28 

18.50 
17  21 

14.86 
14.18 

32.20 
35  37 

27.29 
34  00 

1.56 
1  05 

Third  stage  

8.45 

14.43 

11.58 

36.10 

39.62 

1.41 

Without  going  into  the  details  of  a  discussion  of  the  charac- 
teristics of  the  groups  of  feed  principles  named  in  these  tables 
it  may  be  useful  to  remind  the  reader  of  certain  elementary 
facts. 

The  ash  of  a  feeding-stuff  is  the  residue  left  after  burning  all 
combustible  substances.  For  the  most  part  this  is  derived  from 
the  soil,  though  it  may  contain  carbon  that  was  secured  from 
the  carhon-dioxid  in  the  air. 

The  crude  protein  embraces  all  organic  compounds  containing 
nitrogen  and  may  even  include  some  inorganic  nitrogenous  sub- 
stances. 

The  pure  protein  is  the  crude  protein  minus  certain  nitrog- 
enous substances  that  are  less  complex  than  proteins  proper, 
and  possess  a  lower  food-value.  The  proteins,  by  reason  of  the 
nitrogen,  sulphur  and  phosphorus  which  they  contain,  are  en- 
titled to  greater  esteem  in  a  feed  than  are  fats  and  carbohy- 
drates. 

The  crude  fiber  consists  of  cellulose  and  substances  more  or 


366  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

less  like  it  chemically.  The  toughness  and  firmness  of  forage 
plants  depend  largely  on  this  constituent.  Cotton  and  linen  are 
nearly  pure  cellulose.  Obviously  the  crude  fiber  is  of  inferior 
nutritive  value;  indeed,  there  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  in 
many  cases  such  of  it  as  is  digested  by  animals  is  utilized  at  an 
expenditure  of  more  energy  than  is  yielded  by  the  digested  fiber. 

The  nitrogen-free  extract  includes  starch  and  the  sugars  as 
well  as  other  less  well  known  carbohydrates.  In  some  tables 
this  group  is  listed  as  carbohydrates,  without  due  regard,  how- 
ever, for  the  fact  that  the  cellulose  of  the  crude  fiber  is  a  car- 
bohydrate. 

The  crude  fat  extracted  from  hay,  or  from  other  materials, 
obtained  by  drying  the  green  parts  of  plants,  includes  some 
chlorophyl,  the  green  substances  of  leaves,  and  other  compounds 
that  are  not  fats,  as  well  as  any  fat  in  the  feed. 

The  water  of  a  feed  possesses  no  nutritive  power  and  is  not 
different  from  water  taken  by  drinking. 

Studying  now  the  table  showing  the  percentages  of  the  sev- 
eral constituents  of  the  water-free  hay,  it  will  be  seen  that  there 
are  progressive  changes  as  the  plant  becomes  more  mature.  It 
must  not  be  supposed,  however,  that  there  is  an  actual  decrease 
in  the  total  amount  of  any  food  principle  in  the  crop,  but  only 
that  as  maturity  takes  place  certain  constituents  are  produced 
in  greater  proportion,  thus  adding  to  their  percentage  amount 
while  correspondingly  reducing  the  percentage  of  the  constitu- 
ents produced  at  a  slower  rate. 

The  hay  produced  by  cutting  when  the  alfalfa  was  about  ten 
per  cent,  in  bloom  is  seen  to  be  richer  in  ash,  protein  and  fat 
than  that  produced  by  later  cuttings,  while  the  crude  fiber  and 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  increase  in  percentage  as  the  plant 
matures.  The  especially  valuable  protein  is  present  to  an  extent 
more  than  one-fourth  greater  in  the  hay  made  at  the  first  stage 
than  it  is  in  that  made  at  the  third  stage,  while  the  questionable 
crude  fiber  is  more  abundant  in  the  later  stages. 

Digestibility  of  Alfalfa. — While  it  is  true  that  a  certain  residue 
of  indigestible  matter  is  necessary  for  animals,  and  especially 
for  ruminants,  which  are  accustomed  to  bulky  feed,  we  seldom 
need  to  give  attention  to  this  in  practice,  as  feeds  are  ordinarily 
excessively  supplied  with  such  indigestible  substances.  Quite 
the  reverse,  we  are  justified  in  prizing  more  highly  those  feeds 
which  show  a  high  degree  of  digestibility.  A  proper  apprecia- 
tion of  alfalfa  hay  thus  requires  consideration  of  its  digestibility. 

The  digestibility  of  the  hays  referred  to  was  ascertained  and 
the  following  table  shows  the  results.  It  gives  the  percentages 


CHEMICAL   COMPOSITION. 


367 


of   the    several    constituents   of   alfalfa   hay   digested,   first   crop, 
three  stages  of  growth,  calculated  to  water-free  basis: 


Ash. 

Crude 
protein. 

Pure 
protein. 

Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Crude 

fat. 

Total. 

First  stage  

6  69 

14  51 

11.94 

14  51 

28  52 

0  98 

65  21 

Second  stage  

5.78 

12.89 

9.90 

17.11 

26  96 

0  42 

63  16 

Third  stage  

5.16 

11.37 

8.57 

17.43 

30.72 

0.75 

65.43 

Here  it  is  seen  that  the  digestible  protein  diminishes  marked- 
ly as  the  alfalfa  matures,  while  the  digestible  carbohydrates  in- 
crease. A  calculation  of  the  nutritive  ratio  in  each  case  brings 
out  this  fact  in  a  concise  way.  The  nutritive  ratio  of  a  feed 
is  the  ratio  of  the  energy  of  the  digestible  nitrogenous  sub- 
stancos  to  the  energy  of  the'  digestible  non-nitrogenous  sub- 
stances.  Making  the  necessary  calculations,  the  nutritive  ratios 
are  found  to  be  as  follows:  First  stage,  1  to  3.11;  second  stage, 
1  to  3.49;  third  stage,  1  to  4.38.  These  are  all  narrow  ratios 
but  widen  as  the  alfalfa  matures. 

A  full  appreciation  of  the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  cannot  be 
had  without  comparisons  with  other  feeds.  The  average  per- 
centage of  digestible  constituents  in  certain  well  known  feeds  is 
shown  in  the  following  table: 


FEED. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Fat. 

Nutritive 
ratio. 

Corn  

7  14 

66  12 

4  97 

1  '10  8 

Oats  

9  25 

48  34 

4  18 

1  •  6  2 

Wheat  

10  28 

69  21 

1  68 

1  •  7  1 

Bran  

12  01 

41  23 

2  87 

1  •  4  0 

Shorts    . 

I9  92 

49  98 

3  83 

1  •  4  8 

Timothy  hay  

2  89 

43  72 

1  43 

1'16  2 

Red  clover 

7  38 

38  15 

1  81 

1  .    c    rt 

It  will  be  seen  that  alfalfa  cut  at  the  first  stage  gave  a  hay 
that  had  a  higher  percentage  of  digestible  protein  than  any  of 
the  feeds  named  in  the  table,  and  that  the  digestible  carbohy- 
drates (fiber  plus  nitrogen-free  extract)  of  alfalfa  compare  favor- 
ably with  those  in  the  feeds  cited,  and  in  some  cases  exceed 
them.  The  nutritive  ratios  bring  out  clearly  the  value  of  alfalfa 
as  a  source  of  protein,  and  its  great  availability  in  balancing 
rations. 

Many  analyses  of  alfalfa  made  at  other  experiment  stations, 
with  such  digestive  experiments  as  have  been  performed,  show 
the  same  general  results  as  are  exhibited  in  the  foregoing.  The 
earlier  cuttings  are  richer  in  protein,  but  a  high  and  nearly 


368 


ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 


equal  degree  of  digestibility  for  the  protein  present  is  possessed 
by  all  cuttings,  so  that  their  relative  feeding  value  is  prac- 
tically indicated  by  their  composition.  Nearly  three-fourths  of 
the  protein  of  alfalfa  and  about  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  carbohy- 
drates are  digestible. 

Composition  of  the  Different  Parts. — The  statements  made  thus 
far  apply  to  hay  from  the  entire  plant.  It  is,  however,  well 
known  that  there  are  great  differences  between  the  stems  and 
the  leaves.  The  most  detailed  analyses  in  this  connection  have 
been  made  at  the  Utah  station.  From  a  mass  of  data  concern- 
ing cuttings  made  at  different  dates  and  upon  different  crops, 
those  concerning  the  first  crop,  cut  in  the  early  bloom,  have 
been  selected  and  placed  in  the  tables  shown  below.  The  first 
one  shows  the  yield  of  dry  matter  in  pounds  per  acre,  and  also 
the  weight  of  the  stalks,  leaves  and  flowers  separately.  It  also 
shows  the  composition  of  each  of  these  parts  and  of  the  whole 
plant: 


PART  OP  PLANT. 

Yield, 
per  acre, 
pounds. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fiber. 

Nitrog-en- 
free 
extract. 

Fat. 

Stalks  
Leaves  . 

28.38 
18.56 

9.01 
14  33 

10.74 
24  05 

42.17 
13  81 

37.14 
41  82 

0.94 
5  99 

Flowers  

1.36 

10.56 

26.18 

15.58 

46  00 

1  68 

Whole  plant 

48  31 

11  10 

16  30 

30  53 

39  23 

2  92 

From  the  above  table  we  see  that  the  leaves  and  flowers  are 
far  richer  in  protein  than  are  the  stalks,  while  the  reverse  is 
true  in  respect  to  fiber.  Nitrogen-free  extract  does  not  show 
so  great  a  difference  but  the  stalks  are  notably  inferior.  In  the 
next  table  the  data  are  presented  in  a  different  form.  It  shows 
percentages  of  ash,  protein  and  fiber  in  each  of  the  different 
parts  of  the  alfalfa  plant,  to  total  amount  of  that  constituent 
in  entire  plant: 


PAKT  OP  PLANT. 

Yield, 
per  cent. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Fat. 

Stalks 

58  75 

47  69 

38  73 

81  17 

55  68 

19  03 

Leaves  .... 

38.43 

49.62 

56.74 

17.39 

41  01 

79  34 

Flowers  

2.82 

2.69 

4.53 

1.44 

3.31 

1.63 

The  above  table  shows  that  of  the  total  yield  58.75  per  cent, 
is  in  stalks,  but  that  of  the  total  protein  only  38.73  per  cent,  is 
in  them,  while  they  contain  over  81  per  cent  of  the  total  fiber. 
On  the  other  hand  the  leaves,  constituting  but  38.43  per  cent, 
of  the  yield,  contain  56.74  per  cent,  of  the  protein  of  the  entire 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 


369 


crop  and  only  17.39  per  cent  of  the  fiber.  The  nitrogen-free  ex- 
tract is  not  so  disproportionately  divided  between  the  stalks 
and  the  leaves.  Over  four-fifths  of  the  fat  is  furnished  by  the 
leaves  and  flowers,  though  they  make  up  but  little  over  two- 
fifths  of  the  weight.  We  see  from  this  the  exceeding  import- 
ance of  so  handling  the  crop  as  to  preserve  the  leaves  and 
flowers.  By  the  loss  of  all  of  these  the  feeding  value  will  be 
impaired  much  more  than  the  loss  in  weight  would  indicate. 

Loss  by  Weathering. — It  is  apparent  to  all  that  alfalfa  hay  is 
greatly  damaged  by  rain.  This  is  due  not  only  to  fermentations 
that  may  accompany  the  process  and  to  mechanical  losses,  but 
also  to  the  fact  that  soluble  substances  are  dissolved  out  and 
removed.  Observations  have  been  made  by  the  Colorado  ex- 
periment station  upon  a  hay  which  was  exposed  in  the  field  for 
fifteen  days,  during  which  time  it  was  subjected  to  three  rains, 
amounting  to  1.76  inches.  The  following  table  shows '  the  per- 
centage composition  of  the  damaged  and  of  the  undamaged  hay: 


Nitrog-en- 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Fiber 

free 

Fat. 

extract. 

Original  

12.2 

18.7 

26.5 

38.7 

3.9 

Damaged  .  . 

12  7 

11  0 

38  8 

33  6 

3  8 

The  above  figures  as  given  show  that  the  damaged  hay  is 
considerably  inferior  to  the  undamaged,  but  like  many  other 
percentage  statements  is  liable  to  be  misunderstood,  or  at  least 
not  completely  understood.  It  must  not  be  supposed  that  the 
protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract  have  been  converted  into  crude 
fiber,  although  the  damaged  hay  contains  nearly  39  per  cent, 
of  crude  fiber,  where  the  undamaged  hay  had  26.5  per  cent; 
at  the  same  time  the  protein  and  nitrogen-free  extract  are  pres- 
ent in  much  smaller  quantity  in  the  damaged  hay.  The  facts 
are  that  undoubtedly  portions  of  all  these  food  principles  have 
been  lost  from  the  crop  as  a  whole,  but  that  the  protein  and 
the  nitrogen-free  extract  have  suffered  much  more  propor- 
tionately than  the  crude  fiber,  this  being  almost  insoluble  and 
not  subject  to  rapid  fermentation. 

A  much  more  instructive  view  of  the  actual  losses  is  ob- 
tained by  additional  calculations.  The  loss  sustained  by  the 
alfalfa  naturally  fell  most  heavily  upon  the  soluble  and  more 
easily  decomposed  substances.  The  most  resistant  of  the  con- 
stituents was  the  fiber,  which  probably  suffered  but  little.  Tak- 
ing the  crop  as  a  whole  then  there  would  be  as  much  or  nearly 
as  much  fiber  as  there  was  before,  excepting  that  which  was  lost 


370 


ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 


mechanically.  We  may  use  this  figure  as  a  measure  of  the 
minimum  losses  by  others.  In  every  100  pounds  of  the  original 
hay  there  were  26.5  pounds  of  fiber,  and  after  it  was  damaged 
there  could  not  have  been  any  more,  and  in  fact  there  must  have 
been  less.  If  we  make  the  most  favorable  assumption,  viz., 
that  there  was  no  loss  of  fiber,  then  the  38.8  per  cent,  of  fiber 
in  the  damaged  hay  is  really  the  fiber  that  was  26.5  per  cent, 
of  the  original  hay.  The  apparent  increase  in  the  percentage 
is  due  entirely  to  the  loss  of  other  constituents.  The  figures 
representing  the  percentages  of  the  other  constituents  as  given 
above  are  all  correspondingly  too  high  for  comparison  with  the 
percentages  of  those  constituents  in  the  original  hay.  In  the 
following  table  the  weights  of  these  constituents  accompanying 
26.5  pounds  of  fiber  in  the  damaged  hay  have  been  calculated. 
These  are  to  the  percentages  of  those  constituents  in  the 
damaged  hay  as  26.5  is  to  38.8: 


Ash. 

Protein. 

Fiber. 

Nitrog-en- 
free 
extract. 

Fat. 

Total. 

Original 

12  2 

18  7 

26  5 

38  7 

3  9 

100 

Damaged 

8  7 

7  5 

26.5 

23.0 

2.6 

68  3 

Pounds  lost  
Per  cent  lost 

3.5 

28  7 

11.2 
60  0 

15  7 
41  0 

1.3 
33  3 

31.7 
31.7 

Comparing  these  figures,  it  will  be  seen  that  of  the  original 
100  pounds  of  hay  only  68.8  pounds  remained;  that  60  per  cent, 
of  the  protein  was  lost,  one-third  of  the  fat,  and  il  per  cent,  of 
the  nitrogen-free  extract.  As  the  assumption  in  reference  to 
fiber  was  more  favorable  than  the  facts,  so  this  calculation  in 
respect  to  protein,  fat  and  nitrogen-free  extract  gives  figures 
that  are  more  favorable  than  was  actually  the  case. 

Startling  as  the  losses  indicated  by  the  preceding  calculations 
are,  the  actual  damage  is  even  greater  than  is  indicated  by 
them.  Since  the  materials  lost  obviously  consisted  of  the  most 
soluble  and  easily  decomposed  parts,  and  hence  the  parts  most 
easily  digested,  "a  smaller  percentage  of  the  protein  remaining 
was  digestible  in  all  probability  than  would  have  been  the  case 
with  the  protein  that  was  lost.  It  is  quite  reasonable  to  assume 
that  one-half  of  the  feed  values  of  the  crop  had  been  lost  from  an 
exposure  to  rain  that  was  not  excessive  in  quantity  and  fell  in 
three  different  showers. 

Westgate's  Bulletin. — From  J.  M.  Westgate's  ad- 
mirable bulletin  (Farmers'  Bulletin  339,  Department 


CHEMICAL  COMPOSITION. 


371 


of  Agriculture)  we  extract  the  following  useful  and 
instructive  tables : 

AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  COMPOSITION  OP  ALFALFA  AND  OTHER 
FORAGE  CROPS.* 


KIND  OP 
FORAGE. 

Fresh  alfalla.. 
Fresh  clover.. 
Alfalfa  hay... 
Clover  hay  — 
Timothy  hay.. 
Cowpea  hay.. 

Number 
of  analy- 
ses. 

23 
43 
21 

38 
68 
8 

Water. 

Ash. 

Protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen- 
free 
extract. 

Ether 
extract 
(fat). 

Per  cent 

71.8 
70.8 
8.4 
15.3 
13.2 
10.7 

Per  cent 
2.7 
2.1 
7.4 
6.2 
4.4 
7.5 

Per  cent 
4.8 
4.4 
14.3 
12.3 
5.9 
16.6 

Per  cent 
7.4 

8.1 
25.0 
24.8 
29.0 
20.1 

Per  cent 
12.3 
13.5 
42.7 
38.1 
45.0 
42.2 

Per  cent 
1.0 
1.1 
2.2 
3.3 
2.5 
2.2 

*In  part  from  Henry's  "Feeds  and  Feeding-,"  Appendix. 

AVERAGE  PERCENTAGE  OF  DIGESTIBILITY  OF  ALFALFA  AND  OTHER 

FORAGE  CROPS. 
(Experiments  with  ruminants.) 


KIND  OF  FORAGE. 

Number  of 
experiments. 

Protein. 

Crude 
fiber. 

Nitrogen-free 
extract. 

Ether  extract 
(fat). 

Fresh  alfalfa.. 

2 

Per  cent 
81 

Per  cent 
45 

Per  cent 
76 

Per  cent 
52 

Fresh  clover  
Alfalfa  hay  
Clover  hay  

2 

28 
46 

67 
73 
55 

53 
43 
49 

78 
66 
69 

65 
54 
53 

Timothy  hay 

26 

48 

52 

63 

57 

Cowpea  hay  

2 

65 

43 

71 

50 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN  ALFALFA  AND  OTHER  FORAGE  CROPS. 


KIND  OF  FORAGE. 

Dry  matter  in 
100  Ibs. 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS  IN 
100  LBS. 

Protein. 

Carbohy- 
drates. 

Ether 
extract. 

Fresh  alfalfa  

28.2  Ibs. 
29.2  Ibs. 
91  .6  Ibs. 
84.7  Ibs. 
86.8  Ibs. 
89.3  Ibs. 
88.1  Ibs. 
89.1  Ibs. 

3.9  Ibs. 
2.9  Ibs. 
11.0  Ibs. 
6.8  Ibs. 
2.  8  Ibs. 
10.8  Ibs. 
12.2  Ibs. 
7.9  Ibs. 

12.7  Ibs. 
14.8  Ibs. 
39.6  Ibs. 
35.8  Ibs. 
43.4  Ibs. 
38.6  Ibs 
39.2  Ibs. 
66.7  Ibs. 

0.5  Ibs. 
0.7  Ibs. 
1.2  Ibs. 
1.7  Ibs. 
1.4  Ibs. 
1.1  Ibs. 
2.  7  Ibs. 
4.3  Ibs. 

Fresh  clover. 

Alfalfa  hay  
Clover  hay  .  . 

Timothy  hay  
Cowpea  hay.. 

Wheat  bran  

Shelled  corn  . 

The  following  table  indicates  the  actual  feeding  value  of 
eight  different  kinds  of  feed,  based  on  the  amount  of  digestible 
nutrients  contained  in  them.  These  values  are  calculated  from 
the  figures  given  in  the  table  just  preceding.  The  values  per 
pound  assigned  as  the  basis  of  calculation  are  protein,  $0.0674; 
carbohydrates  (starches,  etc),  $0.0064;  ether  extract  (fats), 
$0.0112.  These  figures  are  merely  relative,  as  the  prices  of  the 


372  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

food  elements  vary  in  the  different  sections  and  from  year  to 
year.  It  will  be  noted  that  the  value  of  alfalfa  hay  is  slightly 
more  than  double  that  of  timothy. 

ACTUAL  FEEDING  VALUE  OF  DIFFERENT  FEEDS  BASED  ON  AMOUNT  OP 

DIGESTIBLE  NUTRIENTS. 
Feed.  Value  per  ton. 

Fresh  alfalfa $7.00 

Fresh  clover 5.96 

Alfalfa  hay 20.16 

Clover  hay 14.12 

Timothy  hay 9.80 

Cowpea  hay 19.76 

Wheat  bran 22.80 

Shelled  corn 20.16 


ALFALFA  FOR  HORSES. 

The  place  of  alfalfa  as  a  horse  feed  has  not  yet 
been  settled  beyond  dispute.  Most  men  who  have 
not  used  it  are  opposed  to  its  use  and  bring  forward 
very  good  arguments  against  it.  On  the  other  hand 
in  alfalfa-growing  countries  are  found  some  of  the 
best  developed  and  most  healthy  and  useful  horses 
in  the  world.  I  have  seen  in  the  alfalfa  pastures  of 
California  wonderful  young  horses,  weanlings  and 
foals,  that  never  ate  any  other  food  than  their 
mother  >s  milk  and  alfalfa,  with  what  little  wild 
grass  might  be  mixed  through  the  field.  These  colts 
running  all  summer  on  the  alfalfa  meadows  and  be- 
ing fed  alfalfa  hay  during  winter  reach  a  magnificent 
development  and  are  often  as  large  and  well  finished 
at  two  years  as  they  would  be  at  three  in  a  land 
where  they  ate  timothy  hay  instead  of  alfalfa, 

In  France  quite  a  little  use  of  alfalfa  is  made  in 
the  horse  breeding  districts  and  has  been  from  time 
immemorial.  In  England  always,  so  far  as  history 
tells,  progressive  farmers  have  grown  alfalfa  and 
fed  it  green  in  summer  time. 

Personal  Experience. — The  writer  has  had  experi- 
ence with  seeding  alfalfa  to  horses  since  1887.  He 
began  it  on  the  Utah  ranch  and  has  continued  it 
on  Woodland  Farm  in  Ohio  since  his  return.  In 
Utah  the  horses  were  most  of  them  used  under  the 

(373) 


374  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

saddle.  The  country  was  extremely  rough  and  the 
going  bad.  A  horse  must  have  endurance,  speed, 
bottom.  It  is  charged  that  alfalfa  makes  a  horse 
soft,  lacking  in  endurance,  sweating  easily.  There 
is  truth  in  the  charge ;  we  will  explain  it  later.  The 
fact  is  no  horses  'could  have  worked  better  under 
the  saddle  than  did  these  alfalfa-fed  range  horses. 
They  had  no  other  hay  and  for  grain  they  had  corn ; 
we  had  nothing  else  for  them. 

And  yet  it  is  true  that  the  horses  worked  best 
when  they  were  worked  regularly  and  worked  hard. 
If  they  were  idle  for  a  long  time,  meanwhile  eating 
much  alfalfa  hay,  they  did  get  soft  and  sweated 
considerably  when  suddenly  put  to  work.  I  do  not 
attempt  to  explain  this  fact.  I  think  that  the  reason 
is  that  the  idle  horses  ate  too  much  alfalfa  hay, 
took  into  their  systems  several  times  as  much  pro- 
tein as  their  bodies  needed  or  could  use,  and  thus 
induced  some  sort  of  unhealthful  condition  of  the 
body  cells.  It  did  not  take  them  long  to  get  hard 
under  work.  But  it  is  assuredly  true  that  idle- 
ness and  excessive  alfalfa  feeding  will  make  a  horse 
soft.  Idleness  and  six  eggs  a  day  will  make  all  sorts 
of  things  wrong  with  a  man,  for  that  matter. 

That  alfalfa  will  develop  a  hard  horse  is  evidenced 
by  the  fact  that  not  a  few  splendid  race  horses  have 
been  developed  in  California  and  elsewhere  on  a 
diet  almost  altogether  composed  of  alfalfa  hay  and 
pasture. 

No  Heaves  nor  Colic. — At  Woodland  Farm  for 


ALFALFA   FOR  HORSES.  375 

many  years  no  other  hay  has  been  in  use.  In  truth 
the  horses  refuse  to  eat  timothy  hay,  having  become 
accustomed  to  alfalfa.  Before  alfalfa  came  into  use 
there  was  nearly  always  one  or  more  horses  with 
heaves,  but  since  we  have  had  alfalfa  hay  we  have 
not  had  one  case  of  this  disease.  Oolic  among 
horses  is  the  bane  of  the  farmer  and  horseman.  Once 
the  veterinary  bills  were  a  considerable  item  on 
Woodland  Farm.  Now  colic  is  a  rare  thing,  and 
would  probably  never  occur  again  if  the  men  did 
not  occasionally  feed  injudiciously  of  corn,  or  over- 
feed with  alfalfa  hay. 

Less  Grain  Needed. — We  have  learned  that  very 
much  less  grain  is  required  where  alfalfa  is  fed,  not 
much  more  than  half  the  usual  ration.  Why  should 
not  this  be  true?  Alfalfa  itself  is  as  rich,  very 
nearly,  as  wheat  bran,  itself  a  good  grain  food  for  a 
horse.  Alfalfa  is  nearly  as^  rich  a  food  as  oats. 
Horses  will  do  a  great  deal  of  hard  work  with  no 
grain  at  all  if  they  have  first-class  alfalfa  hay,  but 
I  do  not  recommend  this.  The  horse  has  a  small 
stomach  and  not  much  time  for  masticating  his  food. 
A  small  grain  ration  with  his  alfalfa  hay  is  right. 

Action  on  Kidneys. — It  has  been  urged  that  the 
foundation  for  this  rumor  or  belief  is  that  when  a 
horse  unused  to  alfalfa  is  fed  it  for  <the  first  time 
it  does  stimulate  its  kidneys  so  that  there  is  a 
noticeable  increase  in  the  amount  of  urine  voided. 
I  think  this  never  really  injures  the  animal  and 
the  symptoms  disappear  in  a  short  time.  If  al- 


376  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

falfa  was  fed  in  moderation,  less  than  the  animal 
desired,  it  is  not  likely  that  it  would  ever  so  affect 
him.  It  is  only  nature's  way  of  throwing  off  pro- 
tein which  has  been  consumed  in  excess  of  what  the 
animal  could  use. 

On  Woodland  Farm  are  horses  that  have  grown 
up  on  alfalfa  and  have  never  eaten  any  other  hay 
in  their  lives.  Their  kidneys  are  sound.  They  do, 
not  urinate  more  frequently  than  is  normal,  nor 
void  an  excess  of  urine.  Further,  their  urine  is 
clear,  not  cloudy  nor  muddy.  The  fact  is  the  trou- 
ble's arising  from  alfalfa  feeding  are  usually  ex- 
perienced by  men  having  little  or  no  alfalfa  to  feed. 
Ask  a  man  who  really  grows  it  and  feeds  it  and  he 
will  almost  always  reply  that  there  is  no  better 
feed  for  horses  and  no  bad  results  arise  from  reg- 
ular and  continued  feeding  of  it. 

Alfalfa  for  Young  Horses. — There  is  certainly 
nothing  else  so  good  for  the  draft  colt  and  its  moth- 
er. Here  one  seeks  size  and  development.  Alfalfa 
will  surely  give  it.  Let  the  mare  have  the  run  of  an 
alfalfa  field  in  summer  with  a  grass  lot  adjoining, 
or  have  grass  mixed  through  the  alfalfa.  Feed  her 
and  her  colt  alfalfa  hay  in  winter  and  as  much 
development  can  be  had  at  two  years  old  as  will  be 
had  at  three  by  the  usual  feeding  of  timothy  hay. 
And  there  is  nothing  yet  discovered  to  show  that 
this  early  growth  is  not  as  good  as  though  it  came 
later.  In  truth  it  is  certain  that  the  later  develop- 
ing colt  will  never  reach  the  size  and  conformation 


ALFALFA  FOR  HORSES.  377 

that  the  one  attains  that  has  had  the  right  food  from 
the  beginning,  and  enough  of  it. 

Alfalfa  for  Brood  Mares. — As  to  the  effect  of  al- 
falfa hay  on  the  breeding  of  mares,  opinions  differ. 
Alfalfa-fed  mares  are  apt  to  be  fleshy.  It  is  very 
possible  that  in  some  instances  they  may  become 
too  fat  to  conceive  well.  It  may  be  that  during  the 
breeding  season  the  mares  should  have  less  or  pos- 
sibly no  alfalfa  hay.  We  need  further  evidence 
along  this  line.  Certain  it  is  that  after  the  mare  is 
safely  with  foal  a  diet  composed  chiefly  of  alfalfa 
is  very  good  for  her.  I  know  of  no  injury  that  can 
follow  feeding  her  alfalfa  and  pasturing  her  on  al- 
falfa till  her  colt  is  foaled.  Certainly  all  mares 
are  better  to  work  up  until  that  time,  not  hard  but 
regularly,  and  no  pregnant  animal  should  live  a  life 
of  idleness  or  stagnation,  nor  become  too  fleshy. 

Making  Horse  Hay. — I  think  the  first  cutting 
makes  as  good  hay  for  horses  as  any.  It  ought  to 
be  on  the  side  of  over-ripeness  rather  than  to  be 
too  green,  though  one  can  err  in  letting  it  become 
too  woody.  It  ought  to  be  well  cured  and  put  into 
the  barn  as  dry  as  possible.  Then  there  will  be  no 
mold  nor  dust  on  it.  Alfalfa  leaves  and  stems  are 
free  from  the  small  hairs  that  abound  on  red  clover 
leaves  and  stems.  These  hairs  make  hay  dusty  and 
irritate  the  bronchial  passages  of  the  horse.  That 
is  one  reason  why  one  can  feed  alfalfa  safely  and  can 
not  feed  red  clover  so  well. 

Fattening   Sale  Horses. — Many    owners   of  sale 


378  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

stables  now  use  alfalfa  hay  almost  exclusively,  find- 
ing 'that  the  animals  gain  in  weight  much  more  rap- 
idly on  an  alfalfa  diet  than  upon  any  other.  Many 
eastern  horse  breeders  who  have  not  learned  to 
grow  alfalfa  are  sending  their  colts  to  be  pastured  in 
western  alfalfa  fields,  there  to  develop. 

Over-feeding  wiih  Hay. — B.  3.  Kinzer  and  G.  0. 
Wheeler  of  the  Kansas  experiment  station  have  pub- 
lished the  subjoined  observations  on  feeding  hay  to 
horses : 

A  majority  of  horse  owners  are  inclined  to  waste  hay  in  feed- 
ing horses,  i.  e.,  they  feed  more  than  is  necessary  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  horse  and  more  than  he  can  economically  take  care 
of.  This  is  true  of  other  kinds  of  hay  as  well  as  of  alfalfa. 

Either  heavy  or  light  horses  that  are  doing  regular  steady 
work  should  not,  if  one  wishes  to  feed  economically,  have  more 
than  one  pound  of  hay  per  hundred  pounds  of  live  weight. 
That  is,  a  thousand-pound  horse  should  receive  10  pounds  of 
hay  per  day  and  a  1,500-pound  horse  15  pounds  per  day.  A  1,500- 
pound  horse  that  is  doing  steady  work  should  have  about  4  Ibs. 
of  hay  with  his  morning  feed,  the  same  amount  at  noon,  and 
about  double  the  amount  at  night.  Many  horses  will  eat  30  or  40 
pounds  of  hay  a  day  if  they  have  free  access  to  it.  If  a  horse  is 
allowed  to  eat  such  quantities  half  of  it  is  wasted,  and  if  he  is 
eating  that  amount  of  alfalfa  hay  it  is  worse  than  wasted,  for  it 
does  the  horse  an  injury.  From  two  to  two  and  a  half  pounds  of 
digestible  protein  is  all  that  an  ordinary  horse  can  utilize  in  a 
day,  and  in  100  pounds  of  alfalfa  there  are  11  pounds  of  digestible 
protein.  This  fare  of  alfalfa,  if  too  heavily  fed,  is  likely  to  cause 
kidney  disorder,  and  may  even  be  responsible  for  abortion  in 
pregnant  mares  that  are  fed  too  liberal  a  ration  of  it.  If  it  does 
not  cause  abortion,  weak  unhealthy  foals  will  be  the  result. 

Have  alfalfa  fed  judiciously  to  pregnant  mares,  heavy  or  light 
work  horses,  and  it  is  beneficial  and  should  be  used  wherever  it 
is  obtainable,  but  it  should  never  be  used  as  the  exclusive  rough- 
age. Some  objection  is  made  to  it  on  account  of  causing  loose- 
ness of  the  bowels  and  making  the  horses  soft  and  easy  to  sweat. 
This  is  due  to  their  having  it  in  too  large  quantities.  Alfalfa 
hay  should  be  fed  as  part  of  the  grain  ration  rather  than  a 


ALFALFA   FOR  HORSES.  379 

roughage.     If   fed   in   this   manner   its   use   will  be   found   very 
satisfactory. 

I  think  the  danger  of  over-feeding  exaggerated, 
yet  it  is  assuredly  a  waste  to  over-feed  it,  and  it 
must  do  more  or  less  harm  to  the  horse.  In  fact 
it  is  one  of  the  greatest  lessons  of  modern  times  that 
mankind  may  increase  its  energy  and  usefulness  very 
greatly  by  limiting  the  accustomed  intake  of  rich 
nitrogenous  food,  taking  merely  what  is  needed  to 
repair  waste  and  rebuild  the  body,  instead  of  taking 
"all  it  can  hold/'  merely  for  the  pleasure  of  eating. 

Developing  Draft  Horses. — When  will  we  cease 
sending  to  France,  Belgium  and  Great  Britain  for 
our  draft  stallions?  When  we  have  wide  alfalfa 
fields  and  plenty  of  them.  There  are  men  finding 
the  way  to  produce  splendid  draft  animals  at  low 
cost  in  America.  J.  W  Kobison  of  Kansas  is 
growing  Percherons  in  alfalfa  pasture.  It  is  said 
that  his  three-year-old  colts  average  1,700  pounds 
and  his  four-year-olds  1,900  pounds.  Alfalfa  is  al- 
most the  only  food  given  either  mares  or  colts.  Be- 
fore foaling  no  grain  is  fed,  only  alfalfa  hay  or  pas- 
ture being  given,  and  the  colts  come  strong  and  the 
mothers  free  from  feverish  tendencies  and  full  of 
milk.  Colts  so  developed  have  action  and  quality. 

Safety  of  Alfalfa  Pasture. — There  is  more  or  less 
danger  in  depasturing  alfalfa  with  sheep  or  cattle. 
With  horses  I  have  never  seen  or  heard  of  any 
trouble  resulting  from  this  practice.  They  seem  to 
know  instinctively  how  much  to  eat  and  when  to 
cease  eating.  Horses  are  not  so  subject  to  bloat. 


ALFALFA  FOR  CATTLE  FEEDING. 

Experienced  men  say  that  whatever  alfalfa  may 
or  may  not  be  adapted  to  it  is  certainly  in  its 
place  as  a  food  for  cattle.  It  is  the  natural  food  of 
all  ruminants.  They  greatly  relish  the  taste  of  it. 
They  chew  it  well  and  almost  completely  digest  it. 
They  are  in  little  danger  of  eating  too  much  of  it. 
Cattle  thrive  exceedingly  on  a  diet  of  good  alfalfa 
hay.  Many  years  ago  the  writer  stacked  alfalfa  hay 
in  Utah,  and  in  winter  time  fattened  steers  on  it  with 
no  grain  at  all.  They  made  good  beef.  It  would 
have  been  better,  no  doubt,  to  have  fed  them  some 
grain  in  connection  with  the  alfalfa  hay,  but  grain 
was  not  to  be  had.  The  beef  sold  well  on  Denver  and 
Salt  Lake  City  markets  in  the  spring.  It  killed  well. 

Alfalfa  alone  is  better  as  a  maintenance  ration 
than  as  a  complete  ration,  however.  It  is  full  of 
protein,  and  deficient  in  carbohydrates  and  fat.  It 
will  grow  animals  or  maintain  them  beautifully. 
With  a  little  grain  added  it  will  grow  them  and  finish 
them  at  the  same  moment. 

Trials  in  Colorado.— Prof.  W.  L.  Carlyle  and  C. 
J.  Griffith  of  the  Colorado  experiment  station  went 
into  this  matter  quite  carefully  in  1905,  comparing 
alfalfa  hay  alone  and  in  combination  with  sugar  beet 
pulp  and  ground  corn.  Unfortunately  the  alfalfa 
hay  used  was  much  below  the  average,  being  very 
coarse,  cut  too  ripe  presumably,  and  was  seriously 


ALFALFA  FOR  CATTLE  FEEDING. 


381 


injured  in  curing.  With  good  alfalfa  hay  the  results 
would  have  been  more  favorable  to  alfalfa  feeding. 
The  average  weekly  gain  of  these  steers  was  as 
follows : 

Lot  1— Fed  beet  pulp,  hay  and  ground  corn  (maize) 19.0  Ibs. 

Lot  2— Fed  hay  and  ground  corn 12.6  Ibs. 

Lot  3— Fed  beet  pulp  and  hay 13.1  Ibs. 

Lot  4— Fed  alfalfa  hay  only 10.5  Ibs. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  gain  was  only  2.1  pounds 
greater  when  corn  was  fed  than  when  alfalfa  was 
fed  alone.  The  cattle  were  fatter  however  and  thus 
brought  more  money  per  pound  in  the  market. 

AVERAGE  AMOUNT  FEED  REQUIRED  FOR  ONE  POUND  OF  GAIN, 
AND  COST  OF  THE  SAME. 


FOOD  FED. 

Cost 

Alfalfa. 

Pulp. 

Cornmeal. 

Lot  1 

7.59  Ibs. 

35.45  Ibs. 

2.51  Ibs. 

4.22  cents 

Lot  2                                            

17.78  Ibs. 

3.76  Ibs. 

7.63  cents 

Lot  3 

11  89  Ibs 

52.83  Ibs. 

4  28  cents 

Lot  4                                          

28.29  Ibs. 

7.04  cents 

Here  is  given  the  data  showing  the  amounts  of  the  various 
kinds  of  feed  required  to  produce  a  pound  of  live  weight  gain  on 
a  rather  rough  bunch  of  steers  rising  three  years  old.  From  this 
table  it  will  be  seen  that,  in  case  of  Lot  IV  it  required  28.29  Ibs. 
of  alfalfa  hay,  below  the  average  in  quality,  to  produce  one  pound 
of  gain.  With  an  average  lot  of  good  feeding  steers,  and  alfalfa 
hay  of  good  feeding  quality,  the  indications  are  that  one  pound 
of  gain  would  be  produced  for  each  25  Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  on 
the  average. 


Lotl. 

Lot  2. 

Lot3. 

Lot  4. 

Weight  at  beginning  of  experiment  (Ibs.)  
Value  at  3  cents  per  pound  

951 
$28.53 

968 
$29  04 

941 

$28  23 

968 
$29  04 

Cost  entire  period  100  days 

$12  95 

$13  44 

$7  90 

$10  39 

Cost  of  feed  for  100  Ibs.  gain  
Cost  of  labor  in  feeding  

$4.60 
$3.25 

$7.63 
$3.25 

$4.29 
$3.25 

$7.04 
$3.25 

Weight  finished  steer  at  feedlots  (Ibs.)  
Sale  weight  of  steer  at  Denver  (Ibs  ) 

1,214 
1  157 

1,144 
1  088 

1,125 
1  050 

1,115 
1  062 

Shrinkage  in  shipping  (Ibs.)  ..  . 

57 

56 

75 

53 

Selling  price  per  100  Ibs  

$5.15 

$5.06 

$5.00 

$4.73 

Value  at  selling  price 

$59  58 

$55  05 

$52  25 

$50  25 

Cost  of  marketing  

$2.15 

$2.15 

$2.15 

$2  15 

Net  profits  

$12.70 

$7  16 

$10  97 

$5  44 

382  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

In  the  foregoing  table  is  given  a  complete  summary  showing 
the  average  of  each  steer  in  the  various  lots.    This  table  contains 
very  complete  data  covering  the  various  points  of  comparison  in 
the  results  obtained  with  the  average  steer  in  each  lot. 
The  conclusions  drawn  are  thus  stated: 

1.  An  average  feeder  steer  two  years  old  will  make  a  gain  of 
1.5  Ibs.  per  day  on  alfalfa  hay  alone,  and  will  require  approxi- 
mately 28  Ibs.  of  hay  to  make  one  pound  of  gain. 

2.  The  addition  of  ground  corn  to  the  ration  of  alfalfa  hay 
will  increase  the  daily  gain,  increase  the  market  price  of  the  steer 
by  finishing  him  better  in  a  given  time,  and  will  add  to  the  profits 
if  the  corn  can  be  procured  below  90  cents  per  hundred  pounds. 

3.  A  pound  of  ground  corn  is  equal  in  feeding  value  to  2.8 
Ibs.  of  alfalfa  hay  and  to  9  pounds  of  sugar  beet  pulp  for  feed- 
ing two-year-old  fattening  steers. 

4.  Sugar  beet  pulp  at  present  prices  is  a  cheaper  and  better 
feed  than  ground  corn  when  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  for  fattening 
mature  steers. 

5.  That  3.22  of  beet  pulp  is  equivalent  in  feeding  value  to 
one  pound  of  alfalfa  hay,  when  fed  in  conjunction  with  the  hay, 
giving  two-year-old  steers  all  they  will  eat  of  both  feeds. 

t>.  With  alfalfa  hay  at  $5  a  ton,  it  will  pay  to  feed  a  light 
ration  of  ground  corn  with  the  hay,  provided  the  corn  can  be 
purchased  at  from  85  to  90  cents  per  hundred  weight. 

7.  With  poor  alfalfa  hay  at  $5  per  ton,  sugar  beet  pulp  is 
worth  $1.50  per  ton  to  combine  with  hay  for  fattening  mature 
steers. 

8.  Fattening  steers  will  gain  approximately  a  pound  a  day 
more  on  a  ration  composed  of  alfalfa  hay,  ground  corn  and  beet 
pulp  than   they   will   on   a  ration   made   up   of  alfalfa  hay  and 
ground  corn  or  on  a  ration  composed  of  alfalfa  hay  and  sugar 
beet  pulp,  and  they  will  gain  almost  one  and  a  half  pounds  more 
each  day  on  the  above  ration  than  when  fed  alfalfa  hay  alone. 

Experiments  in  Kansas. — Showing  how  alfalfa 
hay  in  the  ration  cheapens  the  cost  of  beef  produc- 
tion, we  quote  from  Bulletin  132  of  the  Kansas  ex- 
periment station,  relative  to  work  done  at  the  Fort 
Hays  branch  station : 

A  matter  of  this  experiment  of  considerable  interest,  especially 
to  the  western  farmer,  is  the  part  that  the  various  roughages  play 
in  beef  production.  A  ration  of  alfalfa  hay,  at  $4.00  per  ton, 


ALFALFA  FOR  CATTLE  FEEDING.        383 

with  corn  and  cob  meal  produced  100  pounds  of  gain  for  $5.13; 
but  when  Kaffir-corn  hay  at  $3.00  per  ton  was  substituted  for 
alfalfa  hay,  the  cost  of  100  pounds  of  gain  was  increased  to 
$7.32,  while  with  sorghum  hay  at  $3.00  per  ton  substituted  for 
the  alfalfa  hay  the  cost  was  increased  to  $9.06.  In  other  words, 
one  b'ushel  of  corn-and-cob  meal  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  as  rough- 
age produced  11.8  pounds  of  flesh,  while  the  same  amount  of 
corn-and-cob  meal  fed  with  sorghum  hay  as  roughage  gave  in 
return  only  6.25  pounds  of  flesh;  thus,  a  difference  of  5.5  pounds, 
or  88  per  cent  in  favor  of  the  alfalfa  hay  ration. 

Tests  in  Other  States. — A  summary  of  trials  in 
beef  making  with  alfalfa  is  thus  presented  by  J. 
M.  Westgate,  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture : 

Alfalfa  forms  probably  the  best  roughage  for  fattening  cattle, 
as  its  lack  of  bulkiness  enables  the  animals  to  consume"  suffi- 
cient quantities  for  rapid  gains.  It  is  also  very  valuable  for 
young  growing  stock  before  the  f-attening  period  commences. 

The  Utah  Agricultural  Experiment  Station  conducted  an  ex- 
periment extending  over  a  period  of  five  years  to  determine  the 
quantity  of  beef  produced  to  the  acre  from  alfalfa  hay  cut  in 
the  different  stages  of  maturity.  It  was  found  that  hay  cut  when 
in  full  bloom  produced  562  pounds  of  beef  annually  to  the  acre, 
while  that  cut  in  early  bloom  produced  706  pounds.  The  hay 
that  was  not  cut  until  half  the  blooms  had  fallen  produced  only 
490  pounds  of  beef  to  the  acre.  At  the  Nebraska  Agricultural 
Experiment  Station  2.41  pounds  of  beef  were  produced  daily  on 
a  full  ration  of  corn  and  alfalfa,  while  only  1.48  pounds  were 
produced  by  a  ration  of  corn  and  prairie  hay. 

The  North  Platte  Substation  of  Nebraska  has  given,  in  Bul- 
letin No.  105,  some  valuable  data  on  the  great  value  of  alfalfa 
in  growing  and  developing  beef  cattle.  The  first  test  compared 
alfalfa,  prairie  hay  and  cane  in  wintering  calves  where  all  lots 
received  two  pounds  of  grain  daily  per  calf.  During  the  winter- 
feeding  period  of  the  experiment  alfalfa  produced  143  pounds 
of  gain  per  head;  prairie  hay,  76  pounds;  cane,  46  pounds,  and 
half-and-half  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay,  133  pounds,  and  half-and- 
half  alfalfa  and  cane,  120  pounds  of  gain. 

The  year  following  the  same  cattle  were  wintered  as  yearlings 
on  the  same  rations,  except  that  no  grain  was  fed.  The  alfalfa 
lot  gained  81  pounds  per  head  in  120  days;  the  prairie-hay  lot 
lost  18  pounds;  the  cane-hay  lot  lost  64  pounds;  the  half-and- 
half  alfalfa  and  prairie  hay  gained  62  pounds  and  the  half-and- 


384  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

half  alfalfa  and  cane  gained  92  pounds  each.  The  amount  of 
hay  consumed  or  wasted  about  the  racks  daily  per  steer  ranged 
from  18.7  pounds  in  the  prairie-hay  lot  to  24  pounds  in  the 
cane  lot,  20.2  pounds  being  eaten  daily  per  head  by  the  steers 
receiving  alfalfa  alone.  From  the  fact  that  the  half-and-half 
ration  gave  equally  good  gains  with  straight  alfalfa,  it  would 
seem  to  be  economy  to  use  some  of  these  cheaper  roughages  with 
alfalfa  for  wintering  steers. 

While  no  accurate  data  have  been  kept,  it  has  been  the  com- 
mon practice  to  winter  the  breeding  cows  of  the  pure-bred  herd 
of  the  Kansas  experiment  station  upon  alfalfa  hay  and  corn- 
stover,  the  alfalfa  being  fed  in  racks  and  the  stover  fed  out  on 
the  pasture  as  much  as  possible.  This  method  of  feeding  has 
kept  the  cows  in  splendid  breeding  condition,  and  the  use  of  the 
stover  has  resulted  in  cheapening  the  cost  of  their  maintenance 
from  that  of  straight  alfalfa  feeding. 

Results  at  Woodland. — On  Woodland  Farm  the 
best  and  cheapest  beef  'ever  produced  was  from 
young  cattle  given  all  the  alfalfa  hay  they  would 
eat  up  clean,  corn  silage  and  a  small  ration  of  ear 
corn. 

Meeting  Competition. — In  Argentina  where  alfalfa 
growing  is  assuming  large  proportions  it  is  becom- 
ing a  common  thing  to  finish  cattle  with  alfalfa  hay 
and  corn  maize.  Better  beef  is  thus  produced  and 
a  better  price  secured  foT  it.  Argentina,  that  young 
giant  of  the  Southland,  is  our  most  formidable  com- 
petitor in  the  business  of  furnishing  England  with 
bread  and  meat.  The  use  of  corn  and  alfalfa  there, 
although  already  assuming  large  proportions,  is  yet 
in  its  infancy.  We  in  America  must  awaken  to  our 
possibilities.  We  can  grow  alfalfa.  We  can  grow  it 
in  practically  every  county  in  the  United  States,  cer- 
tainly with  greater  ease  in  some  places  than  in 
others,  yet  almost  any  of  us  can  grow  it.  We  grow 


ALFALFA  FOR  CATTLE  FEEDING.         385 

corn  with  greater  success  than  the  Argentine.  Our 
cattle  are  better.  With  abundant  alfalfa  all  over 
our  land  we  will  be  able  to  more  than  hold  our  own 
against  this  competition. 

That  is  the  dream  of  the  writer,  that  he  may  has- 
ten the  day  when  alfalfa  meadows  will  be  common 
in  nearly  every  township  in  the  United  States,  mows 
filled  with  alfalfa  hay,  stacks  standing  in  the  fields, 
yards  and  corrals  filled  with  good  cattle,  abundant 
supplies  of  manure  made  available,  fields  becoming 
richer  rather  than  poorer,  and  country  people  hav- 
ing Wherewithal  to  live  as  country  people  ought  to 
live,  in  comfort,  sending  their  sons  to  agricultural 
colleges  and  their  daughters  as  well,  both  to  come 
back  to  the  farms  and  there  continue  the  labor  of 
soil-building,  field-beautifying  and  home-making. 


ALFALFA  FOR  DAIRY  COWS. 

Here  is  found  best  of  all  uses  for  alfalfa.  Dairy 
cows  are  machines  for  making  milk.  Milk  is  a  ma- 
terial requiring  large  amounts  of  protein  for  its 
manufacture.  Dairy  cows  are  machines  and  they 
are  somewhat  delicate  machines.  They  require 
large  amounts  of  protein,  but  they  thrive  better 
when  that  protein  is  furnished  them  in  the  shape  of 
forage  than  if  it  is  given  them  in  concentrated  form. 
One  may  buy  protein;  he  can  get  it  in  cottonseed- 
meal,  linseed-meal,  gluten  meal  or  other  form,  and 
by  feeding  the  right  amount  get  the  proper  nutrients 
in  the  feed,  but  that  does  not  at  all  equal  in  effect 
the  feeding  of  a  ration  mixed  "as  God  mixed  it"- 
that  is,  a  forage  such  as  alfalfa,  delicious  in  flavor, 
rich  enough,  not  too  rich,  bulky  enough,  not  too 
bulky. 

Stimulating  Flow  of  Milk.— In  truth  there  is  no 
artificial  blending  of  foods  that  will  give  the  results 
that  feeding  alfalfa  will.  An  illustration  of  this  is 
furnished  by  the  experience  of  a  Pennsylvania 
breeder  of  Guernsey  cattle.  This  man  bought  some 
alfalfa  hay  from  Woodland  Farm.  After  using  it 
for  a  few  weeks  he  wrote : 

6 1  Our  Guernsey  cows  are  entered  in  the  official  test 
for  position  in  the  advanced  registry.  Naturally 
therefore  we  have  been  feeding  them  as  well  as  we 
knew  how  to  feed  them.  Since  they  had  your  al- 

(386) 


ALFALFA   FOR  DAIRY   COWS.  387 

falfa  hay  they  have  increased  20  per  cent  in  their 
milk  flow." 

This  man  is  now  growing  his  own  alfalfa,  and  his 
neighbors  are  learning  from  his  example.  In  his 
region  the  plant  was  unknown  until  he  began  its 
culture.  The  secret  of  growing  it  there  was  the  use 
of  plenty  of  lime  in  the  soil,  then  manure,  phos- 
phorus and  mid-summer  seeding. 

Value  to  Dairymen. — There  is  not  a  dairyman  liv- 
ing who  is  not  at  too  high  an  elevation  who  should 
not  make  effort  to  grow  alfalfa,  as  no  one  else  needs 
it  so  much.  He  can  stop  the  purchase  of  protein. 
He  can  keep  cows  in  perfect  health  and  vigor.  He 
can  get  the  most  milk  that  they  are  capable  of  giving 
if  he  has  alfalfa.  And  he  can,  and  should,  feed  it 
nearly  day  of  the  year.  Let  him  begin  early  in 
spring  by  cutting  it  green  and  soiling;  let  him  feed 
dry  alfalfa  hay  when  pastures  are  too  lush  and  there 
is  danger  of  cows  scouring  in  June;  let  him  feed  it 
green  when  pastures  fail  in  August  and  September ; 
let  him  feed  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  silage  after  frost 
comes,  or  before  for  that  matter.  Thus  the  milk 
comes  freely  the  year  around,  and  all  from  feed  pro- 
duced on  his  own  farm. 

A  Little  Grain  Needed. — With  alfalfa  and  corn 
silage  nearly  a  balanced  ration  is  found.  Very  little 
grain  need  be  fed  in  addition,  though  it  is  economy 
to  feed  a  small  amount,  since  cows  need  a  little  less 
bulk  than  it  would  take  to  furnish  nutrients  enough 
in  alfalfa  and  silage  alone. 


388  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

Maintains  Vigor. — One  thing  that  should  be  well 
emphasized  is  that  where  alfalfa  hay  is  fed  liberally 
cows  keep  in  splendid  health  and  strength.  They 
may  be  made  to  give  as  much  milk  by  feeding  other 
feeds.  Cows  will  give  milk  liberally  and  be  phys- 
ical wrecks,  and  when  fed  on  the  forcing  process 
with  what  must  be  classed  as  artificial  foods  they 
frequently  go  down  in  vitality  so  that  they  are  prey 
to  any  sort  of  malady  that  may  happen  to  overtake 
them.  When  fed  liberally  on  alfalfa  they  give  as 
much  milk  or  more,  they  carry  more  flesh,  they  have 
better  tone,  more  abundant  vigor,  breed  better,  drop 
stronger  calves,  the  calves  grow  into1  better  heifers 
and  make  better  cows.  There  is  nothing  else  so 
good  for  a  dairy-bred  heifer  as  alfalfa  hay  though 
she  may  need  to  be  limited  somewhat  in  amount  if 
she  shows  a  marked  tendency  to  overmuch  body 
plumpness. 

Findings  of  Experiment  Stations. — The  New  York 
station  reports  the  results  of  feeding  home-grown 
rations,  consisting  of  alfalfa  hay  and  corn  silage, 
feeding  four  cows  for  sixty  days,  in  comparison 
with  a  purchased  feed  ration  for  the  same  number 
of  cows  for  the  same  length  of  time.  These  rations 
cost  respectively  $30.03  and  $47.05,  or  12.5  cents  and 
19.6  cents  per  cow  per  day.  This  is  a  net  gain  of 
24.3  cents  per  hundred  pounds,  and  a  half  of  a  cent 
per  quart  of  milk,  or  a  saving  of  33.7  and  31.5  per 
cent.,  respectively,  for  milk  and  butter  in  favor  of 
the  home-grown  ration.  They  estimate  that  when 


ALFALFA   FOR   DAIRY   COWS.  389 

purchased  feeds  average  $25  per  ton  alfalfa  is  worth 
$16.50  to  feed  with  corn  silage. 

At  the  New  Jersey  station  a  test  was  made  with 
two  lots  of  dairy  cows  to  determine  the  compara- 
tive value  of  alfalfa  and  a  combination  of  wheat- 
bran  and  dry  brewer's  grains  as  a  source  of  protein. 
In  this  test  the  alfalfa  ration  produced  a  daily  yield 
of  20.8  pounds  of  milk  and  1.06  pounds  of  butter, 
while  the  bran  and  brewer  's-grain  ration  produced 
a  daily  yield  of  21.8  pounds  of  milk  and  1.08  pounds 
of  butter,  only  a  slight  difference  in  favor  of  the 
more  concentrated  protein  foods.  Bran  and  dried 
brewer's  grains  each  cost  $17  per  ton,  on  which  basis 
alfalfa  hay  proved  to  be  worth  $11.16  per  ton. 

At  the  Maryland  station  alfalfa  and  cornmeal 
gave  better  results  than  silage  and  commercial 
foods.  Where  alfalfa  and  silage  were  fed  with  and 
without  grain,  the  grain  feeding  proved  the  more 
economical. 

Experiments  conducted  at  the  Tennessee  experi- 
ment station  tend  to  show  that  one  and  one-half 
pounds  of  alfalfa  will  replace  one  pound  of  wheat- 
bran. 

The  New  Jersey  station  concludes  that  three 
pounds  of  alfalfa  is  equivalent  in  feeding  value  to 
one  pound  of  cottonseed-meal. 

The  Nebraska  station  compared  feeding  alfalfa 
hay  with  the  feeding  of  prairie  hay,  and  decided  as 
a  result  of  these  tests  that  alfalfa  produced  10  per 
cent  more  milk  from  10  per  cent  less  food. 


390  ALFALFA  ~  ARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

The  Utah  station  :'  irnid  that  adding  cornstalks  to 
a  corn  and  alfalfa  r  ition  gave  larger  returns  per 
unit  of  dry  matter  than  alfalfa  without  stalks. 

Alfalfa  Meal  for  Dairy  Cows. — Alfalfa  meal  un- 
doubtedly has  advantage  in  some  ways.  It  is  a 
saving  of  labor  for  the  cow  to  have  her  alfalfa 
ground  for  her.  If  it  could  be  ground  very  cheaply 
no  doubt  it  would  pay.  However,  the  Pennsylvania 
experiment  station  reports  adversely  on  alfalfa 
meal,  or  at  least  that  it  is  no  better  than  wheat  bran, 
if  it  is  quite  as  good.  It  is  interesting  to  note,  how- 
ever, that  when  wheat  bran  and  alfalfa  meal  were 
rated  at  the  same  price  per  ton  the  cost  of  milk  pro- 
duction was  nearly  identical.  With  alfalfa  meal  at 
$23  per  ton  and  wheat  bran  at  $20,  corn-and-cob- 
meal  at  $20,  and  cottonseed-meal  at  $28  per  ton,  the 
grain  cost  of  100  pounds  of  milk  when  the  cows  were 
fed  alfalfa  was  47.1  cents ;  when  fed  wheat  bran  it 
was  45.3  cents. 

Assuming  alfalfa  meal  to  cost  no  more  than  bran 
the  former  seemed  to  produce  milk  at  the  lower 
grain  cost  per  hundred  pounds — 44  cents,  as  com- 
pared with  45.3  cents  on  bran.  On  this  basis  of 
comparison  if  wheat  bran  was  worth  $20  per  ton, 
alfalfa  meal  was  worth  $21.28  per  ton. 

I  am  not  sure  that  it  would  pay  to  make  alfalfa 
meal  for  home  use  and  to  feed  to  cows.  I  incline  to 
believe  that  to  dampen  the  hay  over  night,  restoring 
it  thus  -somewhat  to  its  natural  green  condition, 
would  be  cheaper  and  nearly  as  effective.  Certainly 


ALFALFA   FOR  DAIRY   COWS.  391 

where  alfalfa  hay  is  worth  no  more  than  $10  per 
ton  it  would  be  cheaper  to  feed  it  unground  and  in 
large  amounts. 

Alfalfa  Silage  for  Cows. — Already  we  have  dis- 
cussed the  making  of  alfalfa  silage.  The  experiences 
of  men  making  silage  of  alfalfa  are  varied.  Some 
like  the  stuff,  some  have  indifferent  success  in  mak- 
ing it.  It  seems  certain  that  immature  alfalfa  makes 
poor  silage.  The  plants  should  be  in  good  state  of 
bloom,  should  be  cut  with  dew  on  and  raked  at  once 
and  hurried  into  the  silo,  well  cut  into  short  lengths 
with  no  drying.  Corn  for  silage,  alfalfa  for  dry 
feed — "it  is  something  to  chew  on,"  it  is  necessary 
to  the  cow,  it  keeps  her  occupied,  in  health  and  vigor. 
God  speed  the  day  when  millions  of  acres  of  alfalfa 
will  lie  adjacent  to  dairy  barns  all  over  our  land. 


ALFALFA  FOR  SHEEP. 

Alfalfa  for  Sheep. — All  sheep  love  alfalfa  either 
green  or  dry.  The  very  nature  of  the  animal  makes 
alfalfa  a  suitable  food  for  it.  Sheep  need  foods  rich 
in  protein.  It  takes  such  food  to  make  good  wool, 
red  flesh,  blood,  bone,  milk.  Sheep  are  usually 
either  young  and  growing  or  else  are  ewes  giving 
milk,  or  pregnant  and  developing  within  their  bodies 
unborn  lambs.  Growth  calls  for  protein.  Milk  calls 
for  protein.  Wool  calls  for  protein.  The  protein 
requirement  of  the  sheep  is  greater  than  with  the 
cow.  This  much  for  theory. 

Essential  to  Profit. — The  practical  part  of  it  is 
that  experience  has  shown  that  sheep  dearly  love 
alfalfa,  green  or  dry,  and  thrive  exceedingly  on  it. 
In  fact  it  is  hard  to  make  profit  in  America  in  sheep 
farming  unless  one  has  alfalfa  hay  to  fall  back  upon. 
The  best  shepherds  are  provided  with  it.  It  is  fed 
during  winter  time  in  the  sheep  folds ;  ewes  yean  on 
a  diet  of  alfalfa  hay;  they  suckle  their  lambs  with 
milk  made  chiefly  from  alfalfa;  they  go  sometimes 
to  pasture  composed  of  a  mixture  of  grasses  and  al- 
falfa; the  lambs  are  fattened  on  alfalfa  hay  and 
grain.  The  sheep  industry  in  America  with  alfalfa 
taken  away  would  almost  collapse.  Millions  of 
sheep  are  fattened  mainly  on  alfalfa  hay.  It  is  the 
very  foundation  stone  of  the  industry. 

(392) 


ALFALFA  FOR  SHEEP.  393 

Grazing  Sheep  on  Alfalfa. — In  another  place  ref- 
erence is  made  to  this  practice  and  it  is  told  how 
that  alfalfa  pastures  destined  to  be  fed  off  by  sheep 
should  have  grasses  mixed  through  them,  as  a  pre- 
ventive of  bloat.  The  secret  of  successful  grazing 
of  sheep  on  alfalfa  seems  to  lie  in  following  of  a  few 
well  defined  rules.  ; 

First,  the  alfalfa  ought  to  be  fairly  well  grown. 
It  is  much  better  if  it  is  near  the  blooming  stage 
when  they  are  turned  into  it.  It  is  all  wrong  to 
turn  them  in  the  field  in  early  spring,  letting  them 
gnaw  off  the  buds  from  the  crowns  as  they  start  to 
grow.  That  is  a  practice  bad  for  the  alfalfa  and  not 
very  helpful  to  the  sheep. 

Second,  the  sheep  should  be  filled  up  full  on  green 
feed  before  being  turned  in  to  the  alfalfa.  If  in  ad- 
dition they  are  given  some  dry  grain,  provided  they 
are  accustomed  to  this,  all  the  better.  They  should 
be  turned  in  at  about  10  or  11  o  'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing of  a  sunny  day. 

Third,  they  should  have  salt  before  them  at  all 
times.  It  is  thought  that  it  is  better  to  mix  with 
this  salt  air-slaked  lime,  about  two  parts  of  lime  to 
one  of  salt.  I  have  not  tested  this  but  it  has  the 
weight  of  good  authority. 

Finally,  once  introduced  to  alfalfa  the  sheep 
should  not  again  be  taken  off  of  it,  neither  by  night 
nor  by  day,  nor  in  rain  nor  dew  nor  at  any  time  till 
they  are  taken  off  for  good.  And  when  they  are 
taken  off  and  it  is  desired  to  introduce  them  again 


394  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

it  will  take  even  more  care  the  second  time  than  it 
did  the  first  to  accustom  them  safely  to  alfalfa,  be- 
cause they  will  be  ravenous  for  it. 

The  only  exception  to  this  rule  is  that  it  may  be 
advisable  sometimes  to  allow  them  to  go  to  the  sheds 
for  shade  in  the  middle  of  the  day.  If  this  is  done 
care  should  'be  taken  that  they  are  returned  to  the 
alfalfa  field  as  soon  as  they  are  willing  to  leave  the 
shade  in  the  afternoon. 

Thus  managed,  the  writer  in  an  experience  of  sev- 
eral years  lost  from  2  per  cent  to  4  per  cent  of  the 
flock  from  all  causes  during  the  pasturing  season, 
partly  attributable  to  bloat. 

Varying  Practice. — Eegions  differ  as  regards  the 
bloating  effect  of  alfalfa.  In  some  places  it  seems 
to  be  impossible  to  pasture  sheep  on  it  at  all.  In 
other  places  it  is  an  easy  thing  to  accomplish  safely. 

In  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  there  is  now  a  large 
use  of  alfalfa  pasture  for  lambing  ewes  in  spring- 
time. The  same  is  true  in  parts  of  California.  I 
was  told  in  California  that  along  the  Sacramento 
there  was  much  loss  from  bloating,  while  along  the 
San  Joaquin  and  southward  to  the  Imperial  Valley 
there  was  little  or  no  loss  at  all.  Perhaps  the  alfal- 
fa along  the  Sacramento  was  more  nearly  unmixed 
with  grasses,  or  was  of  a  more  succulent  nature. 

In  Argentina  millions  of  sheep  and  lambs  are  fat- 
tened on  alfalfa  pasture,  no  grain  being  fed  them. 
Usually  there  is  a  natural  admixture  of  grasses. 

On  Woodland  Farm  I  practiced  feeding  lambs  on 


ALFALFA  FOR  SHEEP.  395 

alfalfa  pasture  as  I  would  pigs,  with  ear  corn 
thrown  on  a  clean  place  on  the  ground.  The  results 
were  astonishing.  Lambs  born  in  March  weighed  in 
late  June  80  pounds  and  were  sent  fat  to  market,  at 
long  prices. 

In  Kentucky  some  of  the  best  early  lamb  growers 
practice  turning  the  ewes  and  lambs  on  alfalfa  that 
has  run  into  blue  grass  considerably.  The  result 
is  glorious  lambs  that  bring  the  top  prices  and  ripen 
weeks  earlier  than  lambs  running  on  common  pas- 
turage. 

Ewes  Get  Too  Fat. — The  practical  objection  to 
alfalfa  pasturage  is  that  it  makes  ewes  too  fat  to 
breed  well.  To  remedy  this  one  ought,  if  he  sees 
such  condition  approaching,  take  them  away  and 
turn  them  to  rather  poor  grass  for  a  time.  I  feel 
certain  that  I  have  lost  the  use  of  a  good  many  ewes 
from  barrenness  through  this  effect,  as  they  became 
fat,  ready  for  the  butcher  and  not  ready  for  the  ram. 
One  remedy  would  naturally  be  to  send  them  as  they 
became  fat  to  market,  but  this  is  not  practicable  in  a 
pure-bred  flock. 


HAY  FOR  SHEEP  FEEDING. 

Ewes  in  winter  time  need  little  else  than  alfalfa 
hay  to  maintain  them  in  splendid  condition  for 
dropping  a  crop  of  strong  lambs.  Thus  treated  they 
will  come  in  with  plenty  of  milk.  There  is  usually 
little  danger  of  their  consuming  too  much  alfalfa 
hay  after  being  safe  in  lamb.  It  is  well,  however,  to 
feed  some  other  food,  not  so  rich,  in  connection  with 
the  alfalfa  hay. 

To  give  a  run  to  blue  grass  or  other  pasture,  and 
a  little  of  some  other  sort  of  hay,  if  the  ewes  will 
eat  it,  or  to  give  bright  corn  stover  in  connection 
with  good  alfalfa  hay,  is  good  practice.  Sometimes 
ewes  may  be  better  off  for  a  trifle  of  grain  when 
they  are  eating  alfalfa  hay.  If  they  are  all  right, 
in  good  health  and  condition  when  winter  sets  in 
and  are  afterward  liberally  fed  with  alfalfa  no  grain 
will  be  needed,  and  in  truth  it  may  be  a  detriment. 

Feeding  Value  of  Hay. — Illustrative  of  the  fact 
that  alfalfa  alone  is  a  rich  enough  feed  we  present 
the  following  table  from  the  Kansas  experiment  sta- 
tion, giving  some  comparative  values  of  alfalfa  and 
other  well  known  feed  stuffs.  The  figures  are  for 
the  digestible  matter  found  in  the  various  feeds. 
These  figures  were  gotten  from  the  results  of  feed- 
ing experiments  at  that  station : 

(396) 


HAY  FOR  SHEEP  FEEDING. 


397 


Protein. 
13.24 

Carbo- 
hydrates. 

39  26 

Fat. 
0  89 

Alfalfa  hay!  cut  half  in  bloom  

11.90 

40.26 

0.39 

10  43 

43  17 

0  69 

6.58 

35.35 

1.66 

2  89 

43  72 

1  43 

Prairie  hay..                                .  .                .        

0.61 

46.90 

1  97 

Corn  fodder,  

1.98 

33.16 

0.57 

Kafir-corn  fodder                                                   .  . 

3.22 

48.72 

1.15 

Wheat  bran  

12.01 

41.23 

2.87 

Study  of  this  table  shows  plainly  why  it  is  that 
ewes  well  fed  with  alfalfa  hay  are  well  nourished. 
Ewes  eating  alfalfa  hay  during  pregnancy  have  ud- 
ders well  filled  with  milk  when  the  lambs  are  born. 
This  makes  the  shepherd's  cares  light  at  that  anx- 
ious time.  Ewes  suckling  their  lambs  will  milk  well 
on  alfalfa  'hay  with  a  trifle  of  grain  in  addition. 
Lambs  born  in  winter  will,  with  bright  alfalfa  hay 
and  a  ration  of  cracked  corn,  develop  rapidly  and 
make  prime  lambs  for  the  fancy  "hot  house "  trade. 

Lamb  Feeding  at  Woodland. — The  writer  was 
perhaps  the  first  man  east  of  Colorado  to  begin  fat- 
tening lambs  with  alfalfa  as  the  hay  ration.  His 
earlier  practice  was  to  feed  timothy  hay,  shredded- 
corn  stover,  oat  straw  and  clover  hay.  To  balance 
these  fodders,  deficient  in  protein,  he  bought  wheat 
bran  and  oilmeal.  The  result  was  satisfactory,  ex- 
cept that  the  cost  of  making  baby  mutton  was  ex- 
cessive. These  lambs  were  fed  from  November  un- 
til April,  being  bought  from  western  ranges  or  from 
farms.  About  the  average  cost  during  the  early 
90  's  was  $6.25  per  hundred  pounds  for  the  gain  put 
on.  Concentrates  rich  in  protein  grew  steadily 
dearer  and  lambs  cheaper,  so  that  it  seemed  that 


ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

the  end  of  his  lamb  feeding  was  near,  when  he 
turned  his  attention  to  producing  an  abundance  of 
alfalfa.  He  found  that  as  good  lambs  could  be 
made  with  alfalfa  hay  and  ear  corn  only  as  he  had 
been  making  with  shelled  corn  or  ground  corn  and 
oilmeal  and  wheat  bran.  The  alfalfa-fed  lambs 
developed  a  little  slower,  but  made  the  gain  much 
cheaper  and  with  a  lessened  death  rate.  For  some 
years  the  cost  of  producing  lamb  mutton  on  alfalfa 
hay  and  ear  corn  averaged  about  $3.50  per  hundred 
pounds.  In  recent  years,  owing  to  the  advanced 
cost  of  corn  and  alfalfa  hay,  the  cost  has  increased 
to  about  $4.50  or  $5  per  hundred,  making  no  al- 
lowance for  labor. 

It  is  the  present  practice  to  give  the  lambs  a 
longer  feeding  time,  buying  them  in  November,  giv- 
ing little  but  alfalfa  for  a  month,  then  a  trifle  of 
corn,  gradually  increasing  until,  in  March,  they 
may  get  nearly  as  much  corn  as  they  will  eat.  At 
no  times  are  they  fed  all  the  corn  they  will  eat,  nor 
more  alfalfa  than  they  will  eat  clean,  saving  that 
some  coarser  stems  are  allowed  to  be  rejected.  In 
April  or  early  in  May  the  lambs  are  sold  and  they 
have  topped  the  markets  for  years,  and  are  watched 
for  by  buyers  in  Buffalo. 

The  manure  made  by  these  lambs,  fed  under  shel- 
ter, is  returned  to  the  land  where  corn  is  to  be 
planted,  usually  an  old  alfalfa  sod.  After  one  crop 
of  corn,  or  at  most  two  crops,  the  land  is  sowed  back 
to  alfalfa  again.  This  manure  is  very  rich  and  by 


HAY  FOR  SHEEP  FEEDING.  399 

this  system  of  farming  the  productiveness  of  the 
place  is  steadily  and  rapidly  growing. 

Comparative  Value  of  the  Hay. — Numerous  tests 
have  been  made  at  experiment  stations  of  alfalfa 
hay  compared  with  wild  hay  or  timothy  hay  or  some 
other  roughage  for  sheep  and  lambs.  In  every  case 
great  superiority  for  alfalfa  has  been  shown.  Thus 
Burnett  found  that  lambs  eating  alfalfa  hay  and 
shelled  corn  made  52  per  cent  greater  gains  than 
those  fed  corn  and  prairie  hay.  Similar  results  were 
had  in  Wyoming. 

Feeding  Operations  in  the  West. — It  is  in  Color- 
ado, western  Kansas  and  Nebraska  that  one  sees 
alfalfa  feeding  in  successful  operation  in  a  large 
way.  There  sheep  and  lamb  feeding  is  an  art  and  a 
science.  Alfalfa  is  of  course  the  cornerstone  of  it. 
On  'the  excellence  of  their  alfalfa  depends  all  their 
chance  of  profit  and  success.  In  truth  the  aim  is  to 
feed  the  sheep  or  lambs  as  much  alfalfa  as  possible, 
and  thus  economize  as  far  as  may  be  in  grain,  which 
is  often  the  costly  part  of  the  ration. 

Methods  in  Use. — The  method  of  feeding  is  ad- 
mirably simple.  As  a  rule  no  sheds  are  used  in  Col- 
orado since  no  rain  falls  in  winter  and  not  much 
snow.  Yards  are  erected  in  somewhat  sheltered 
places  and  the  fences  so  built  that  sheep  can  thrust 
their  heads  through  and  eat  alfalfa,  hay  which  is 
drawn  from  the  ricks  directly  to  the  yards  and  piled 
against  the  fence.  From  time  to  time  It  is  pushed 
up  to  them  as  they  consume  it.  Grain  is  fed  in 


400  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

troughs.  Colorado  lambs  usually  top  the  Chicago 
and  Omaha  markets.  The  excellence  of  their  mut- 
ton is  very  great.  Alfalfa  does  it,  with  a  proper 
amount  of  corn. 

After  the  sheep  are  fed  there  is  left  a  tremendous 
amount  of  manure.  Once  this  was  allowed  to  go  to 
waste.  Becently  it  has  been  found  profitable  to  haul 
it  to  the  fields.  In  western  Nebraska  it  is  often  put 
on  the  old  alfalfa  meadows,  where  it  has  been  found 
very  beneficial. 

Small  Waste  in  Feeding. — There  is  no  especial 
care  necessary  in  feeding  sheep  or  lambs  on  alfalfa 
hay.  When  hard  frosts  late  in  the  season  catch  the 
alfalfa  it  is  sometimes  injurious  to  sheep  after  being 
made  into  hay.  Ordinarily  no  harm  ever  comes  to 
a  sheep  from  having  as  much  alfalfa  as  it  can  eat. 
It  has  been  learned,  however,  that  sheep  may  eat 
their  hay  up  nearly  clean,  rejecting  only  the  most 
woody  portion,  and  thrive  nearly  as  well  as  though 
wasting  all  but  the  finer  stems  and  leaves.  Less 
waste  is  found  where  the  animals  can  thrust  their 
heads  clear  into  the  racks,  or  through  the  fences,  to 
reach  the  hay  than  when  they  must  pull  it  through 
narrow  cracks  in  the  rack.  The  writer  makes  his 
alfalfa  feeding  racks  with  vertical  slits  1"  wide. 
Through  these  sheep  thrust  their  heads  and  keep 
them  there  while  eating. 

It  is  not  true  economy  with  fattening  sheep  or 
lambs  to  require  them  to  eat  their  hay  too  close; 
better  gains  are  had  when  they  consume  large 


PORTABLE  HAY-FEEDING  RACKS. 


HAY   FOR   SHEEP   FEEDING.  401 

amounts.  There  is  no  danger  of  their  eating  too 
much,  as  there  is  with  mature  horses.  When  sheep 
reject  coarse  stems  they  may  be  fed  to  horses  get- 
ting grain  with  good  results. 

Maintaining  Fertility. — Hardly  any  other  sort  of 
farming  is  so  good  for  land  as  alfalfa  farming,  with 
sheep  to  consume  the  hay.  Sheep  make  good  ma- 
nure. It  is  easily  saved  and  applied.  Wherever  it- 
is  used  bounteous  crops  are  assured.  In  the  eastern 
states  where  sheep  are  fed  mostly  under  cover,  the 
manure  is  especially  valuable.  It  is  said  that  "one 
can  not  eat  his  cake  and  have  it  too."  This  is  not 
true  of  an  alfalfa  farm  when  the  hay  is  fed  to  sheep 
or  lambs  and  the  manure  put  back.  One  has  his 
fertility  left  after  enjoying  the  profits  of  sheep 
feeding. 


ALFALFA  FOR  SWINE. 

There  is  rotation  in  farm  practices  as  well 
as  in  crops.  Take  the  hog  for  example.  Origi- 
nally it  was  a  forest-dwelling  animal,  consuming 
herbage  of  all  sorts,  grasses,  roots,  whatever  it  could 
get,  and  mainly  coarse  herbage.  Later  it  was  taken 
by  man  and  shut  up  in  pens  or  yards  and  fed  grain. 
Under  -such  treatment  all  sorts  of  difficulties  devel- 
oped, hogs  became  subject  to  disease,  lost  their  pro- 
lificacy, became  unnatural  mothers,  eating  their 
offspring.  Thus  the  hog  fell  into  disrepute,  got  a 
reputation  for  unhealthfulness  and  natural  bad 
habits.  Now,  thanks  to  alfalfa,  the  hog  is  resuming 
its  rightful  place  as  a  grazing  animal,  is  grown  large- 
ly in  the  fields  in  the  winter-time,  eats  coarse  stuff, 
which  it  ought  to  do,  consumes  alfalfa  hay.  The  re- 
sult is  that  in  thousands  of  herds  cholera  has  been 
banished,  the  hogs  have  become  resistant  because  of 
their  feed  and  healthful  way  of  living,  litters  are 
larger,  the  sows  do  not  eat  their  pigs  and  the  cost 
of  making  pork  has  been  reduced  one-half.  All  this 
thanks  to  alfalfa  feeding  and  alfalfa  grazing. 

The  Hog  a  Grazing  Animal. — The  truth  is  the  hog 
is  by  nature  a  grazing  animal.  While  not  a  ruminant 
like  the  cow  and  sheep  yet  it  has  capacity  to  take  care 
of  a  good  deal  of  coarse  herbage  and  is  better  for 
having  it.  There  must  be  a  certain  amount  of  bulk  in 
its  food  to  distend  the  stomach  and  intestines  in  or- 

(402) 


ALFALFA   FOR  SWINE.  403 

der  to  keep  the  animal  in  health.  If  its  intestines 
are  vigorous  then  it  may  resist  cholera  germs,  even 
if  they  are  taken  in.  The  importance  of  this  point 
can  not  be  over  estimated.  Millions  of  germs  are 
about  us,  germs  of  all  sorts.  All  animals  take  them 
in  continually.  When  there  is  a  vigorous,  healthful 
intestinal  tract  these  germs  sometimes,  even  the  most 
virulent,  are  either  digested  or  passed  off,  the  animal 
remaining  unscathed.  When  there  is  a  weak  and 
sickly  intestinal  tract  the  germ  finds  lodgment  and 
disease  follows.  There  can  hardly  be  any  other  ex- 
planation of  the  fact  that  cholera  seldom  troubles 
hogs  rightly  managed  and  kept  in  summer  on  alfalfa 
pasture,  in  winter  in  part  on  alfalfa  hay. 

Fine  Alfalfa  Pork. — This  matter  is  so  essential 
that  I  here  present  part  of  a  paper  read  by  one  of 
the  Government  inspectors  before  the  Kansas  State 
Breeders'  meeting  at  the  Kansas  agricultural  col- 
lege : 

As  these  alfalfa  hogs  came  down  the  alley  to  the  scales,  they 
were  certainly  hogs  for  the  packer,  raised  at  a  profit — thrifty 
and  ready  to  yield  good-grade  pork,  for  a  good  price  was  realized. 
You  could  notice  that  they  were  well  up  on  their  expanded  feet; 
their  height,  length,  and  bones  all  rounded  out  with  even  fat, 
covered  with  a  glossy,  glistening,  heavy  coat  of  hair,  and  keen 
eyes  alert.  Their  backs  were  straight,  broad  and  well  curved 
into  long,  deep  sides  that  had  plump,  pointed  even-shaped  hams 
at  one  end  and  arched  shoulders  at  the  other. 

On  post-mortem  we  did  not  find  a  single  parasite  in  livers, 
lungs,  kidneys  or  intestines,  as  we  do  in  hogs  grown  on  corn  and 
cereals.  Their  lungs  remained  expanded,  that  is,  inflated,  when 
cast  down  in  the  gut  chute;  did  not  collapse,  and  were  of  a  per- 
fect pink.  Their  stomachs  were  larger  and  did  not  recoil  or  con- 
tract readily,  and  same  was  observed  of  the  whole  intestinal  tube. 

The  man  who  pulled  the  intestines  from  the  ruffle  fat  for  cas- 


404  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN  AMERICA. 

ings  said,  "They  are  as  tough  as  clothes-lines  and  as  large  as 
broomsticks."  The  bum-gut  cutter  said  that  "it  seemed  like  tak- 
ing out  automobile  tires,  and  I  have  not  cut  or  torn  a  single  one, 
they  are  so  tough."  The  caul  fat  and  ruffle  fat  after  guts  were 
drawn  off  were  much  heavier  than  the  average  in  corresponding 
corn-fed  hogs.  The  leaf-lard  pullers  and  ham  facers  complained 
about  so  much  fat  and  weight  in  lifting  the  leaf  out,  and  it  was 
more  bound  down  to  the  inside  of  the  abdominal  walls.  The  split- 
ter of  backbones  and  sawyer  of  the  shanks  said  "it  was  like  cutting 
iron  or  railroad  ties."  All  bones  were  bones,  large  and  strong. 
The  carcasses  were  symmetrically  filled  out  like  barrels,  having 
funnel  legs,  and  all  front  feet  were  stiff  and  rigid,  straight  out, 
while  in  other  hogs  the  front  feet  are  generally  limp  and  dangling. 

Their  skins  were  well  filled,  shining  and  smooth  as  the  human. 
When  I  read  this  sentence  to  Mr.  Hodgins  he  laughed  and  said: 
"Don't  credit  it  to  alfalfa,  for  we  dip  our  hogs  every  two  weeks 
in  two  or  three  inches  of  crude  oil  and  never  know  what  lice, 
mange  or  scurf  are,  nor  hog-cholera  so  far,  while  our  neighbors 
on  all  sides  of  us  have  had  it  and  laid  it  to  tankage.  We  fed  the 
same  tankage  they  did,  for  we  bought  it  from  the  same  parties 
and  at  the  same  time."  Their  bodies  were  solid  and  the  meat  was 
of  that  marbled  appearance  of  lean  and  fat,  for  the  fat  of  an  al- 
falfa hog  is  whiter,  and  here  is  where  we  get  the  two  strips  of 
lean  in  the  bacon — rustling  for  a  living  makes  muscte. 

Alfalfa  Pasture  for  Hogs. — No  better  plant  lias 
been  found  for  hog  pasture  than  alfalfa,  nor  will  the 
hogs  greatly  injure  the  alfalfa  if  rightly  managed. 
In  any  event,  even  if  they  do  injure  it,  it  is  well  to 
provide  it,  plowing  it  when  seriously  hurt  and  re- 
sowing.  Certain  points  of  management,  however, 
will  avoid  nearly  all  injury. 

Do  Not  Overstock. — The  pasture  ought  to  be 
larger  than  the  hogs  need.  The  number  of  hogs 
that  a  pasture  will  carry  varies  greatly,  accord- 
ing to  the  size  of  the  pigs  and  the  quality  of  the 
pasture.  It  may  be  said  that  an  acre  will  carry 
nicely  about  1,200  to  1,600  pounds  of  swine,  accord- 


ALFALFA  FOR   SWINE.  405 

ing  to  its  condition  and  the  way  the  'hogs  are  man- 
aged. That  would  mean  8  pigs  weighing  150 
pounds  or  fewer  of  larger  animals.  Not  that  these 
pigs  would  consume  all  the  alfalfa  in  the  field ;  it  is 
not  desired  that  they  should.  It  will  be  mown  two 
or  three  times  and  the  surplus  made  into  hay.  This 
keeps  the  alfalfa  vigorous  and  gives  a  good  deal  of 
hay.  It  also  helps  the  liogs  by  giving  them  a  fresh 
bite  as  it  comes  up  again. 

It  is  not  well  to  mow  off  an  entire  pasture  at  one 
time  as  it  leaves  nothing  for  the  hogs  to  eat  for 
some  days. 

It  will  not  do  to  put  in  enough  hogs  to  eat  a  pas- 
ture down  close  as  it  destroys  the  alfalfa  after  a 
time,  and  one  can  never  get  a  maximum  return  from 
land  treated  in  that  way.  Alfalfa  must  have  a 
chance  to  grow,  and  if  it  is  kept  nibbled  down  close 
all  the  time  it  cannot  possibly  grow.  Thus  instead 
of  getting  the  most  out  of  a  pasture  by  stocking 
heavily  one  gets  the  least  out  of  it.  This  is  a  very 
common  error  made  by  beginners  in  alfalfa  growing. 
Make  your  alfalfa  pastures  wide  and  mow  them 
regularly.  Thus  treated  the  animals  get  the  most 
possible  out  of  them  and  the  pastures  themselves 
will  live  for  a  long  time. 

Wait  for  Warm  Weather. — Do  not  turn  'hogs  in 
alfalfa  pastures  until  warm  weather  comes.  The  bru- 
tal disregard  for  the  young,  tender  plants  displayed 
by  some  would-be  alfalfa  growers  is  most  exasperat- 
ing. Perhaps  it  comes  from  their  habit  of  turning 


406  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

hogs  on  old  blue  grass  pastures  in  winter  or  early 
spring.  Alfalfa  is  in  no  sense  like  blue  grass.  Keep 
the  hogs  carefully  shut  out  of  it  until  it  is  at  least  a 
foot  high  in  spring. 

Do  not  leave  the  hogs  in  pasture  late  in  the  fall, 
either,  especially  if  you  live  east  of  the  Missouri 
Eiver.  To  pasture  alfalfa  late  in  the  fall  in  all  the 
eastern  country  will  very  greatly  damage  it  if  not 
destroy  it.  And  never,  on  any  account,  let  the  hogs 
step  foot  on  it  in  winter  time. 

Alfalfa  not  a  Balanced  Food. — Again,  much  dis- 
appointment comes  from  use  of  alfalfa  in  the  wrong 
way.  Hogs  will  not  make  much  gain  on  alfalfa 
pasture  alone.  They  will  gain  about  one-half  a 
pound  a  day  or  less  with  only  alfalfa  and  water. 
With  >a  little  corn  every  day  in  addition  to  the  al- 
falfa hay  they  will  gain  two  pounds  or  even  two  and 
one-half  pounds  daily.  Nearly  all  the  corn  "sticks 
to  the  ribs"  when  hogs  are  fed  on  alfalfa  pasture. 

It  is  unreasonable  to  expect  hogs  to  fatten  on  al- 
falfa pasture  alone,  or  even  to  expect  them  to  make 
all  their  growth  on  alfalfa  pasture.  Alfalfa  is  ex- 
ceedingly rich  in  protein,  but  is  deficient  in  fat  and 
carbohydrates.  Why  can  not  the  hogs  make  up  on 
grass  what  the  alfalfa  lacks?  Well,  -because  a  hog 
has  too  small  a  stomach,  is  not  a  ruminant,  does  not 
chew  its  cud.  It  wants  a  part  of  its  ration  in  some 
condensed  form.  The  alfalfa  gives  health  and  vigor 
and  makes  growth,  but  it  needs  the  aid  of  corn. 
There  is  no  other  grain  so  good  for  feeding  with 


ALFALFA  FOR  SWINE.  407 

alfalfa.     They  are  happily  wedded  together,  corn 
and  alfalfa. 

Grain  Needed. — It  is  as  unwise  to  feed  either  corn 
or  alfalfa  alone  to  hogs  as  it  would  be  to  send  to  a 
mason  bricks  alone  or  mortar  alone.  He  cannot 
build  a  wall  without  bricks  and  mortar  in  right  pro- 
portions. So  the  hog  cannot  build  without  corn  and 
alfalfa  in  right  amounts.  One  can  trust  him  to  eat 
the  alfalfa,  feeding  it  freely;  there  will  not  be  too 
much  consumed.  He  can  not  let  the  hog  choose  how 
much  corn  he  will  eat  because  he  will  eat  too  much 
for  greatest  profit.  The  corn  should  be  limited,  the 
alfalfa  unlimited.  Thus  come  cheapest  gains  and 
most  profit. 

Amount  of  Grain. — How  much  grain  when  on  al- 
falfa ?  The  Nebraska  experiment  station  has  reached 
this  conclusion: 

A  light  grain  ration  is  not  the  most  economical  for  growing 
pigs,  unless  under  peculiar  circumstances,  when  alfalfa  is  abun- 
dant, grain  very  high  in  price,  and  market  conditions  warrant 
holding  the  hogs.  It  seems  probable  that  two  or  more  pounds  of 
corn  daily  for  each  hundred  weight  of  hogs  is  more  profitable 
than  a  lighter  ration. 

Mature  hogs,  thin  in  flesh,  may  be  expected  to  gain  about  half 
a  pound  per  head  daily  on  alfalfa  without  grain.  Mature  hogs, 
fed  corn  in  a  dry  lot  while  being  fattened,  required  nearly  one- 
half  more  grain  to  produce  100  pounds  gain,  and  gave  a  daily 
profit  of  3  cents  less  per  hog  than^similar  hogs  running  on  alfalfa 
pasture.  Alfalfa  may  be  fed  with  profit  to  growing  or  fattening 
hogs  in  almost  any  form  so  long  as  it  does  not  make  up  too  large 
a  proportion  of  the  ration.  When  cut  (chopped  or  chaffed)  and 
fed  as  one-quarter  of  the  ration  with  ground  corn  it  materially 
reduced  the  cost  of  gains  and  increased  the  profits. 

Value  of  Alfalfa  Pasture. — Certainly  this  varies 
according  to  the  productiveness  of  the  pasture,  the 


408  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

management  and  the  price  of  hogs.  It  may  reach 
anywhere  between  $10  and  $35  per  acre.  The  Kan- 
sas experiment  station  realized  $24.10  from  an  acre 
of  alfalfa  pasture. 

In  1907  C.  E.  Quinn,  a  special  agent  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  investigated  the  pasturing  of 
alfalfa  with  hogs  in  the  west,  giving  especial  atten- 
tion to  conditions  in  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  The 
report  is  found  in  full  in  Farmers '  Bulletin  331.  It 
is  so  pertinent  here  that  we  quote  freely : 

During  the  past  summer  (1907)  about  150  of  the  most  suc- 
cessful swine  growers  and  pork  producers  of  Kansas  and  Okla- 
homa were  interviewed  on  the  subject  of  the  crops  used  for  feed. 
In  Southern  Oklahoma  along  the  river  valleys  and  in  northern 
Oklahoma  and  southern  Kansas  the  farmers  are  favored  with  a 
soil  and  climate  that  makes  it  possible  to  produce  pork  very 
cheaply.  The  mildness  of  the  climate  makes  it  unnecessary  to 
build  as  expensive  shelters  for  hogs  in  winter  as  are  required 
farther  north,  and  the  short  open  winters  make  it  possible  to 
furnish  pasture  during  a  greater  portion  of  the  year,  thus  les- 
sening the  amount  of  grain  which  it  is  necessary  to  feed.  The 
main  pasture  crops  for  hogs  in  this  region  are  alfalfa,  wheat, 
oats,  and  rye,  ranking  in  importance  in  the  order  named. 

It  is  the  testimony  of  95  per  cent  of  the  farmers  interviewed  in 
this  region  that  there  is  no  better  forage  crop  for  hogs  than 
alfalfa,  where  it  can  be  grown  successfully. 

Amount  of  pasturage. — As  to  the  amount  of  pasturage  or  the 
number  of  hogs  alfalfa  will  carry  per  acre  without  injury  to  the 
crop,  the  estimates  given  by  farmers  very  considerably,  depend- 
ing on  the  kind  of  soil,  the  fertility  of  the  land,  and  the  size  of 
the  hogs  pastured.  The  following,  however,  is  a  safe  average  esti- 
mate as  given  by  conservative  men  who  have  had  much  experience. 
River  valley  and  creek  bottom  land  well  set  in  alfalfa  will  carry 
from  15  to  20  head  per  acre  of  50  to  125  pound  hogs.  Upland  of 
fair  average  fertility  will  support  from  8  to  10  head  of  the  same 
kind  of  hogs.  There  are  fields  that  have  supported  25  head  per 
acre  all  through  the  season  for  a  number  of  years  and  are  still 
in  good  condition,  and  there  are  other  fields  that  will  not  furnish 
pasture  for  more  than  5  head  per  acre;  but  these  are  extremes. 


ALFALFA  FOR  SWINE.  409 

When  a  field  is  used  only  for  pasture  it  is  better  to  divide  it  into 
several  lots  and  move  the  hogs  from  one  to  the  other  as  occa- 
sion requires. 

Causes  of  Failure. — Those  who  have  failed  with  it  as  pasture 
owe  their  failure  to  two  causes:  The  first  is  that  the  alfalfa  has 
been  pastured  before  it  has  become  well  rooted.  Young  alfalfa 
is  too  tender  a  plant  to  stand  severe  treatment  except  under  very 
favorable  circumstances.  There  are  a  few  farmers  who  have  pas- 
tured it  the  same  year  it  was  sown  and  the  alfalfa  has  survived; 
but  this  was  on  rich  heavy  loam  soil,  usually  creek  bottom  or 
river  valley  land  with  water  not  far  below  the  surface,  and  the 
season  was  very  favorable.  Ordinarily  alfalfa  should  not  be  pas- 
tured until  the  second  year,  and  better. still  not  until  the  third 
year  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  the  field  as  permanent  pasture. 

The  second  cause  of  failure  with  alfalfa  is  heavy  pasturing  and 
lack  of  judgment  in  pasturing  in  unfavorable  seasons.  A  good 
many  farmers  have  sown  a  small  piece  of  alfalfa,  and  then, 
because  it  has  grown  rapidly  and  all  kinds  of  stock  are  fond  of 
it,  they  have  turned  all  the  stock  on  the  farm  on  it  and  have 
wondered  why  their  alfalfa  was  killed  out.  Others  pasture  re- 
gardless of  whether  the  ground  is  muddy  or  whether  the  season 
is  dry  and  hot.  In  either  case  heavy  pasturing  is  very  likely  to 
cause  the  alfalfa  to  be  killed  out. 

Length  of  Pasture  Season. — The  length  of  the  season  during 
which  this  pasture  is  furnished  also  varies.  Alfalfa  is  ready  for 
pasture  on  the  average  from  the  middle  of  April  in  southern  Okla- 
homa to  the  middle  of  May  in  northern  Kansas.  It  is  not  best 
to  pasture  earlier,  as  the  young  alfalfa  has  not  the  start  it 
should  have  for  heavy  pasturing,  nor  has  it  the  substance  in  the 
plant.  When  not  pastured  too  early,  it  will  furnish  feed  at  the 
rate  mentioned  during  nearly  the  whole  season  until  October 
in  the  northern  part  and  November  in  the  southern  part  of  the 
section  referred  to.  In  some  years  the  pasture  season  will  con- 
tinue a  month  later  in  the  autumn,  owing  to  the  rainfall  and  the 
lateness  of  cool  weather.  In  some  seasons,  if  the  summer  is  un- 
usually dry  and  hot,  the  pasture  will  become  short;  but  usually 
pasture  for  the  number  of  hogs  mentioned  can  be  depended  on  for 
about  seven  months  of  the  year  at  the  southern  limit  of  the  ter- 
ritory named  and  for  about  five  months  at  the  northern  limit. 
This  rule  will  apply  to  other  sections  of  the  country  having  the 
same  climatic  conditions  as  Oklahoma  and  Kansas. 

While  many  farmers  pasture  alfalfa  fields  to  their  full  capacity, 
in  some  sections,  especially  in  northern  Kansas,  it  is  customary 
to  run  about  half  as  many  hogs  as  the  alfalfa  fields  will  support. 


410  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

This  practice  permits  the  cutting  of  the  usual  number  of  crops 
of  hay,  though  the  yield  of  hay  is  of  course  reduced. 

Food  Character  of  Alfalfa. — Alfalfa  not  only  furnishes  a  great 
amount  of  pasture,  but  it  is  of  a  character  that  goes  to  make 
bone  and  muscle.  It  belongs  to  the  leguminous  family  of  plants, 
as  do  the  clovers,  the  cowpea,  the  field  pea,  the  soybean,  and  the 
vetches,  and,  while  it  is  furnishing  this  valuable  food,  it  is  add- 
ing fertility  to  the  land.  Either  alfalfa  pasture  or  alfalfa  hay, 
with  corn,  forms  very  nearly  a  balanced  ration  for  animals;  and, 
while  it  is  better  to  have  a  grain  ration  fed  with  it  to  hogs  as  well 
as  other  animals,  a  healthier,  thriftier  hog  can  be  raised  on  alfalfa 
alone  than  on  corn  alone.  Many  instances  are  found  where  hogs 
have  been  raised  on  alfalfa  alone.  One  Oklahoma  farmer  mar- 
keted in  December,  1905,  61  head  of  spring  pigs  eight  months 
old  that  averaged  171  pounds,  which  had  run  from  the  time  they 
were  little  pigs  with  their  mothers  on  15  acres  of  alfalfa  without 
any  grain.  They  sold  on  the  market  for  5%  cents  a  pound. 
This  made  the  cash  value  of  the  alfalfa  pasture  about  $38.35  per 
acre.  As  will  be  seen,  this  is  a  light  pasturing,  as  there  were  only 
about  4  pigs  per  acre  besides  the  brood  sows. 

Feeding  Practices  and  Actual  Results. — As  already  stated,  it  is 
much  better  economy  to  furnish  a  grain  ration  with  the  pasture, 
as  it  results  in  better  gains  and  better  product.  One  man  esti- 
mates that  it  takes  from  one-half  to  one-third  less  corn  on  alfalfa 
pasture  than  on  a  straight  grain  ration  to  make  a  hog  ready  for 
market.  Many  let  the  hogs  run  on  alfalfa  until  about  six 
months  old,  by  which  time  they  reach  a  weight  of  75  to  125 
pounds,  feeding  just  a  little  grain;  then  they  feed  heavily  for 
about  two  months  and  sell  the  hogs  at  eight  months  old  weigh- 
ing 200  to  225  pounds.  One  farmer,  who  raises  about  a  thousand 
hogs  a  year  and  who  in  one  year  sold  $11,200  worth  of  hogs, 
makes  a  practice  of  raising  his  hogs  on  alfalfa  pasture  until  about 
eight  months  old,  feeding  one  ear  of  corn  per  head  daily.  He 
then  feeds  heavily  on  corn  for  a  month  or  two  and  sells  at  an 
average  weight  of  200  to  225  pounds.  Another  man  feeds  all  the 
corn  and  slop  the  pigs  will  clean  up,  all  the  while  running  them 
on  alfalfa  pasture,  and  sells  at  six  to  eight  months  old  at  weights 
of  250  to  300  pounds.  Another,  who  raises  about  1,000  head  a 
year,  feeds  all  the  corn  the  pigs  will  eat,  beginning  shortly  after 
weaning  and  continuing  until  the  hogs  are  sold  at  ten  to  eleven 
months  old,  averaging  about  275  pounds. 

Still  another  farmer,  from  weaning  time  (two  months  old) 
until  eight  months  old,  feeds  the  pigs  nothing  but  dry  corn  on 
alfalfa  pasture,  averaging  about  one-half  gallon  of  corn 


ALFALFA  FOR   SWINE.  411 

pounds)  a  day  per  head.  At  the  end  of  eight  months  he  sells  at 
an  average  weight  of  250  pounds.  The  quantity  of  corn  fed  is 
about  11 14  bushels  per  head.  Figuring  at  the  average  price  of 
corn  in  this  locality,  35  cents,  and  the  price  received  for  pork, 
5%  cents,  the  following  results  show  the  cost  of  growing  pork 
on  this  farm  and  the  value  of  alfalfa  pasture: 

Value  of  250-pound  ho?,  at  5J£  cents $13.75 

Value  of  pig  at  weaning-,  50  pounds,  at  5^  cents 2.75 

Gain  from  pasture  and  grain $11.00 

Cost  of  11M  bushels  of  corn,  at  35  cents 3.83 

Value  of  pasture  per  head  pastured 7.07 

Now,  compare  these  results  with  those  of  a  man  who  had  to 
depend  on  other  pasture  crops  than  alfalfa.  He  estimates  that  it 
will  take  15  bushels  of  corn  on  wheat,  oats,  and  rye  pasture  to 
raise  and  fatten  a  hog  so  it  will  weigh  240  pounds  at  nine  months 
old,  besides  the  pasture  and  slop.  At  the  price  of  corn  men- 
tioned, 35  cents  a  bushel,  and  with  hogs  at  5%  cents  a  pound, 
note  the  cost  of  producing  pork  on  this  farm: 

Value  of  240-pound  hog,  at  5^  cents, $13.20 

Value  of  pig  at  weaning,  50  pounds,  at  5J^  cents 2.75 

Gain  from  pasture  and  grain $10.45 

Cost  of  15  bushels  of  corn,  at  35  cents 5  25 

Value  of  pasture  per  head  pastured 5.20 

The  pasture  on  this  farm  will  not  support  more  than  half 
as  many  head  per  acre  as  alfalfa.  Its  value  is  only  $5.20  per 
head,  against  $7.07  per  head  for  alfalfa  pasture  on  the  other 
farm. 

The  experiences  of  these  men  are  sufficient  to  show  the  value 
of  alfalfa  pasture  alone,  its  greater  value  when  grain  is  fed  in 
connection,  and  that  it  is  an  important  factor  in  economic  pork 
production. 

Alfalfa  Hay. — While  alfalfa  pasture  has  been  found  to  be  very 
valuable  for  hogs,  the  hay  as  a  part  ration  for  winter  is  scarcely 
less  important.  Throughout  the  region  referred  to  the  farmers 
are  feeding  the  hay  to  hogs  in  winter.  The  hay  has  been  found 
to  be  especially  valuable  for  brood  sows  before  farrowing.  Where 
it  is  fed  during  the  winter  only  a  small  ration  of  grain  is  nec- 
essary to  keep  the  sows  in  good  flesh  and  in  healthy  condition. 
Sows  thus  fed  also  farrow  good  litters  of  strong,  healthy  pigs. 

Feeding  Methods. — Many  feed  the  hay  by  throwing  it  on  the 
ground  in  forkfuls;  others  have  made  low  racks  in  which  the 
hay  is  placed,  where  the  hogs  can  feed  like  cattle  or  sheep. 
The  hay  is  usually  fed  dry.  The  leaves  are  more  readily  eaten 
by  the  hogs  than  the  stems,  and  they  contain  more  of  the  nutri- 


412  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

tive  value  of  the  plant.  For  these  reason  some  farmers  save  the 
last  cutting  of  hay  for  the  hogs  because  it  is  more  relished.  It 
is  eaten  up  cleaner,  as  the  stems  are  not  so  woody.  Sometimes 
the  hay  is  cut  up  fine,  wet,  and  mixed  with  other  feed,  and 
sometimes  it  is  fed  ground,  as  tnere  are  now  alfalfa  mills 
scattered  throughout  the  alfalfa  regions.  But  it  is  very  doubt- 
ful whether  this  extra  expense  will  pay,  unless  it  be  for  a  ration 
for  young  pigs. 

Experiences  of  Farmers. — To  avoid  the  expense  of  cutting  or 
grinding,  some  farmers  in  order  to  get  the  hay  all  eaten  have 
soaked  it  in  water  and  fed  it.  This  has  proved  very  satisfactory 
where  tried.  One  Oklahoma  farmer  carried  his  hogs  through  a 
winter  by  feeding  them  alfalfa  leaves  soaked  in  hot  water  for 
one  day  and  the  next  day  shorts  mixed  with  the  pulp  and  water. 
He  feeds  much  alfalfa  hay  to  his  hogs  and  is  very  successful  with 
them.  He  puts  the  last  cutting  in  shock  as  soon  as  wilted,  and 
thus  cures  it  without  bleaching  and  feeds  it  to  his  hogs.  An- 
other farmer  carried  his  entire  herd  of  hogs  through  the  winter 
by  feeding  them  the  pulp  of  alfalfa  hay  after  soaking  it  in  water 
over  night.  He  also  gave  them  the  water  to  drink.  This  was 
all  the  feed  they  had  during  the  winter,  and  they  were  in 
good  flesh  in  the  spring,  with  smooth,  glossy  coats  of  hair.  A 
Kansas  farmer  was  feeding  a  bunch  of  50  fall  pigs  on  corn. 
During  the  winter  they  got  "off  feed"  and  were  not  thrifty. 
He  reduced  the  corn  and  gave  a  ration  of  two-thirds  chopped 
alfalfa  hay  and  one-third  corn  meal,  the  two  soaked  to- 
gether. The  hogs  began  to  do  better,  and  a  little  later  he  changed 
the  ration  to  one-third  alfalfa  and  two-thirds  corn.  The  results 
were  very  satisfactory,  and  the  cost  of  feed  was  reduced  from 
$15  a  month  on  corn  to  $9  a  month  on  alfalfa  and  corn.  So 
alfalfa  hay,  as  well  as  pasture,  has  a  very  important  use  on  a 
hog  farm. 

Alfalfa  Hay  for  Brood  Sows. — To  show  the  importance  of  al- 
falfa hay  in  a  system  of  feeding,  the  practice  of  the  farmers 
around  North  Platte,  Neb.,  and  elsewhere  may  be  mentioned. 
The  alfalfa  hay  is  ground  up  fine  or  else  fed  whole  with  corn  in 
the  proportion  of  about  5  pounds  of  alfalfa  to  1  pound  of  corn. 
This  is  fed  to  the  brood  sows  during  the  winter,  and  they  come 
through  in  excellent  condition  on  very  cheap  feed.  In  many 
sections  alfalfa  hay  is  worth  about  $5  a  ton  on  the  farm.  One 
ton  of  alfalfa  and  about  eight  bushels  of  corn  will  keep  three 
brood  sows  130  days,  or  nearly  the  whole  winter.  The  hogs  so 
kept  farrow  pigs  that  are  remarkable  for  their  vigor  and  size. 

Views   of   the  •  Nebraska  Station. — Prof.   H.   B. 


ALFALFA   FOR   SWINE.  413 

Smith,  of  the  Nebraska  station  thus  approves  the 
use  of  alfalfa  with  hogs: 

I  cannot  recommend  too  strongly  the  feeding  of  good  alfalfa 
hay  to  any  kind  of  swine.  It  not  only  furnishes  protein,  or 
flesh-making  material,  which  is  deficient  in  corn,  but  it  tends  to 
offset  the  heavy  character  of  a  ration  consisting  of  corn  alone. 
Some  scatter  the  hay  on  the  ground,  but  it  is  better  to  construct 
some  sort  of  a  rack  through  which  the  hogs  can  pull  the  hay 
without  trampling  too  much  under  foot.  If  the  feeder  has  a  cut- 
ting machine  it  might  be  well  to  cut  the  alfalfa  and  mix  it  with 
the  grain.  For  fattening  purposes  do  not  make  this  cut  alfalfa 
more  than  one-fourth  of  the  entire  grain  ration  by  weight,  and 
I  woiud  be  inclined  to  believe  thax  one-fifth  alfalfa  would  be 
better. 

At  the  Nebraska  station  also  Burnett  fed  alfalfa 
leaves  in  comparison  with  wheat  middlings  to  grow- 
ing pigs.  The  pigs  having  the  alfalfa  leaves  made 
the  better  gain.  In  Illinois  A.  J.  Lovejoy  cuts  al- 
falfa very  fine,  almost  as  fine  as  meal,  and  mixes  it 
with  corn  meal,  wetting  all  and  feeding  to  pigs  with 
first-rate  results.  Instances  might  be  multiplied 
almost  infinitely,  but  one  more  must  suffice.  Ex- 
Gov.  W.  D.  Hoard,  of  Wisconsin,  a  man  who  has 
done  very  much  to  introduce  alfalfa  culture  into 
eastern  America,  carries  his  brood  sows  through  the 
winter  with  alfalfa  hay  and  skimmilk  from  his  dairy. 
The  sows  come  through  in  splendid  condition,  with 
no  unnatural  or  depraved  appetites,  farrow  splendid 
pigs  and  have  much  milk  for  them. 

The  Pork  Industry  Prominent. — The  hog  occu- 
pies indeed  a  commanding  position  in  American  agri- 
culture. The  value  of  the  hog  in  America  in  Jan- 
uary, 1909,  was  near  $356,000,000.  To  grow  these 
hogs  costs  American  farmers,  the  writer  estimates, 


414  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

$300,000,000.    With  alfalfa  to  help  cheapen  the  pro 
duction  at  least  $100,000,000  may  be  saved. 

This  is  not  nearly  all  the  story,  either.  Hog  farm 
ing  is  not  usually  a  type  of  farming  adapted  to  soil- 
building  or  even  conserving  of  fertility.  Hog  farm 
ing  usually  means  a  farm  devoted  to  corn  and  a  fe^ 
small  muddy  yards  Where  all  the  corn  is  dumped  tc 
be  devoured  by  the  imprisoned  swine.  Thus  in  these 
small  yards  accumulates  all  the  fertility  of  the  farm, 
The  net  result  is  weeds,  jimpson  weed,  dog  fennel 
all  sorts  of  vile  things,  while  the  fields  grow  steadily 
poorer  and  poorer  as  there  is  nothing  to  go  back 
from  the  hog  feeding.  Now  with  the  use  of  alfalfa 
and  feeding  much  of  the  corn  in  the  alfalfa  fields  the 
land  is  renewed,  its  fertility  increased,  it  carries 
more  stock  and  becomes  more  easily  tilled.  The  dif- 
ference between  alfalfa  farming  with  hogs  and  hog 
farming  without  alfalfa  is  that  where  alfalfa  is  lack- 
ing the  land  is  steadily  destroyed,  where  it  is  had  it 
is  steadily  built. 


ALFALFA  FOR  POULTRY. 

All  sorts  of  fowls  love  alfalfa,  green  or  dry.  In 
truth  they  love  it  not  wisely  but  too  well  for  the  al- 
falfa when  it  is  a  young  thing,  and  unless  kept  away 
from  it  will  destroy  it.  After  it  has  become  estab- 
lished they  will  not  usually  injure  it  unless  the  al- 
falfa is  a  small  patch  near  the  poultry  runs.  It  is 
well  to  keep  them  away  from  the  field  when  the  al- 
falfa is  coming  up  as  they  will  peck  the  seedlings 
and  destroy  every  one  a,t  a  bite. 

Giving  the  Run  of  the  Field. — Poultry  having  a 
run  to  an  alfalfa  field  will  need  very  little  additional 
feed.  Indeed  on  Woodland  Farm  it  is  the  custom 
to  grow  a  hundred,  sometimes  two  or  three  hundred 
guineas  that  simply  live  half  wild  in  the  alfalfa 
fields.  They  subsist  entirely  on  alfalfa  leaves,  in- 
sects and  what  they  find  wild.  They  nest  as  they  like 
and  of  course  a  great  many  of  the  eggs  are  lost, 
since  they  lay  sometimes  a  hundred  in  the  one  nest 
and  the  mower  often  smashes  many  of  them. 

Poultry  having  alfalfa  lays  exceedingly  well.  In 
winter  time  all  fowls  love  the  alfalfa  leaves  and  will 
even  eat  the  smaller  stems.  If  the  alfalfa  is  cut  very 
fine  they  will  eat  nearly  all  of  it.  Certainly  only 
the  best  alfalfa  hay  should  be  offered  the  fowls.  In 
any  barn  where  alfalfa  is  fed  there  can  be  secured 
bags  of  alfalfa  leaves  and  fine  stems  that  the  fowls 

(415) 


416  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

will  eat  with  great  satisfaction.  Some  poultry  keep- 
ers advise  wetting  the  leaves,  or  pouring  boiling 
water  over  them,  which  makes  them  freshen  up 
amazingly;  others  think  as  good  results  come  from 
feeding  them  dry. 

Meal  and  Cut  Hay. — Alfalfa  meal  is  admirable 
for  poultry  and  egg  production.  Where  alfalfa  is 
not  grown  and  the  hay  is  therefore  unavailable 
doubtless  the  meal  is  a  profitable  source  of  vege- 
table food  and  protein.  It  stimulates  egg  production 
and  is  thought  to  have  some  influence  in  making  the 
eggs  fertile. 

For  home  use,  where  alfalfa  hay  is  available  it 
is  well  to  cut  the  hay  in  very  short  lengths,  the 
shorter  the  better  probably,  choosing  very  early 
cut,  tender  and  well  cured  hay  for  this  purpose. 
This  will  doubtless  do  nearly  or  quite  as  well  as 
alfalfa  meal,  and  the  leaves  from  the  feeding  barn 
will  do  best  of  all  since  they  are  most  digestible  of 
any  part  of  the  alfafa  plant. 

It  is  noticeable  that  When  alfalfa  is  available  in 
winter  egg  production  is  greatly  stimulated. 


MAKING  ALFALFA  MEAL. 

Within  recent  years  a  considerable  business  has 
sprung  up  in  the  West  of  making  alfalfa  meal. 
Several  plans  &re  adopted  for  making  this  meal. 
The  hay  must  first  be  carefully  selected.  Only  well 
cured  bright  green  hay  is  available.  With  some  pro- 
cesses this  must  afterward  be  kiln-dried  before  it  is 
put  in  the  mill.  It  is  then  ground  to  a  fine  powder. 
Another  machine  makes  meal  of  the  dry  hay  without 
kiln  drying.  This  meal  is  not  so  fine  a  powder  as 
the  first  mentioned.  A  third  type  simply  cuts  the 
alfalfa  exceedingly  fine  with  a  modification  of  an 
ordinary  hay-cutter.  This  is  the  most  rapid  in  oper- 
ation of  any  machine  and  the  resultant  product 
seems  to  be  as  digestible  as  any.  It  is  not  exactly 
meal,  however,  and  is  often  sold  baled,  a  lock  of 
alfalfa  hay  being  placed  at  each  end  of  the  bale. 
This  seems  the  most  practicable  way  of  handling  it 
for  dairy  feed.  The  fine  ground  meal,  however,  may 
sell  more  readily  in  the  market,  though  it  is  doubt- 
ful if  it  is  any  better  as  a  feed. 

Meal  and  Bran. — Prof.  H.  M.  Cotterell  says  that 
in  one  test  where  alfalfa  meal  was  fed  in  compari- 
son with  wheat  bran,  giving  the  same  weights,  the 
alfalfa  meal  made  141  Ibs.  of  milk,  the  wheat  bran 
100  Ibs.  The  Pennsylvania  experiment  station  on 
the  other  hand  reported  that  alfalfa  meal  gave  no 
better  results  than  wheat  bran,  yet  with  alfalfa  meal 

(417) 


418  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

and  wheat  bran  rated  at  equal  costs  the  meal  made 
slightly  the  cheaper  milk. 

Difference  in  samples  might  readily  account  for 
this  difference.  Much  meal  is  doubtless  made  of 
very  coarse,  woody  hay,  cut  when  over  ripe.  This 
would  naturally  make  less  milk  than  meal  from  early 
cut  hay.  I  believe  alfalfa  meal  to  be  a  good  product, 
but  do  not  think  it  ought  to  be  rated  above  wheat 
bran  in  feeding  value  or  selling  price. 

Easy  of  Transportation. — Probably  the  chief  good 
of  alfalfa  meal  is  to  carry  alfalfa  to  towns  and  cities 
and  regions  where  alfalfa  is  not  grown.  There  re- 
mains to  be  discovered  evidence  that  it  would  pay 
the  farmer  to  grind  his  own  alfalfa  into  meal  for 
use  on  his  own  farm,  unless  it  might  possibly  be  for 
pig  feeding  in  winter  time,  'and  even  there  the  evi- 
dence is  in  favor  of  using  the  'alfalfa  in  its  natural 
form  or  cut  very  fine. 

Alfalmo  is  a  product  of  alfalfa  meal  and  mo- 
lasses. One  who  has  observed  the  very  great  use  of 
molasses  feeds  in  England  must  conclude  that  there 
is  a  field  for  them  in  America,  and  that  this  alf almo, 
if  honestly  made,  as  it  seems  now  to  be,  has  a  future 
before  it  as  a  fattening  ration  for  cattle  and  horses, 
perhaps  for  pigs  as  part  of  the  ration.  Should  we 
be  able  to  introduce  alfalfa  meal  into  England  there 
would  be  opened  a  wide  field  and  a  great  market. 
Perhaps  we  will  need  all  our  alfalfa  hay  at  home  for 
some  years;  perhaps  such  a  market  would  in  the 
long  run  rebound  to  our  injury. 


PLOWING  ALFALFA  SOD. 

A  well  set  alfalfa  sod  is  a  hard  thing  to  plow.  It 
takes  power  and  time  to  break  it.  And  yet,  for  a 
given  amount  of  energy  applied  in  plowing  one  will 
get  much  greater  returns  in  an  alfalfa  sod  than  he 
will  with  any  other  soTt  of  plowing,  so  he  need  not 
feel  aggrieved  at  the  resistance  of  the  alfalfa  roots. 

The  longer  the  alfalfa  has  stood  the  larger  and 
tougher  the  roots  are.  Alfalfa  only  a  year  or  two 
old  plows  not  much  unlike  red  clover  sod.  It  is  the 
old  field  that  gives  one  a  tussle.  To  attempt  to 
plow  that  with  a  dull  plow,  a  poor  team  and  broken 
harness  is  to  waste  one's  energy. 

The  Right  Way. — On  the  other  hand,  rightly  gone 
at  alfalfa  sod  is  a  delight  to  plow.  One  needs  a 
good  team,  three  heavy  horses,  a  first-class  plow 
(preferably  a  walking  plow,  not  a  sulky  or  rid- 
ing plow,  which  rarely  is  successful  in  alfalfa  sod).. 
He  wants  two  good  shares  and  then  to  keep  one  of 
them  in  the  blacksmith's  shop  most  of  the  time, 
being  sharpened;  a  sober,  intelligent  man  holding 
the  plow,  with  a  file  in  his  boot  leg,  then  plowing 
alfalfa  sod  is  as  easy  a  job  as  one  would  care  for, 
only  it  is  rather  slow  work.  We  plow  in  the  fall 
usually  or  early  winter.  The  field  that  is  to  be 
plowed  is  mowed  late.  It  is  as  well  to  save  that  last 
growth,  and  it  will  weaken  the  roots  somewhat  to 

(419) 


420  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

have  it  cut  off.  We  plow  alfalfa  sod  deep.  Why! 
Because  the  roots  cut  off  easier  down  'eight  inches 
or  more.  It  is  true  that  they  will  grow  again,  that 
is,  the  upper  part  will  grow,  and  your  field  in  the 
spring  may  look  almost  as  though  it  'had  not  been 
plowed.  Do  not  let  that  fact  trouble  you.  When  cul- 
tivation begins  the  alfalfa  will  soon  disappear.  This 
is  assuming  that  the  field  is  to  go  to  corn  or  potatoes 
or  some  other  cultivated  crop.  If  sown  to  oats  it  is 
likely  that  the  alfalfa  would  grow  up  in  them  pretty 
thick  and  maybe  trouble  in  the  harvest.  But  oats 
lodge  in  an  alfalfa  sod  anyway,  so  they  do  not  count. 

One  finds  that  the  soil  itself  is  loose  and  easily 
made  friable  after  alfalfa  has  grown  upon  it,  so  he 
can  plow  it  deeper  than  ever  he  did  before  and  find 
soil  all  the  way  down. 

Setting  the  Plow. — Now  about  setting  the  plow. 
We  use  a  rolling  coulter  and  a  pair  of  wheels  on  the 
beam.  One  can  buy  trucks  to  fit  a  walking  plow,  or 
he  can  have  wheels  adapted  to  the  use  by  his  black- 
smith. It  is  probably  cheaper  to  buy  the  trucks. 
As  we  needed  them  on  Woodland  Farm  before  any 
manufacturer  had  started  making  them  we  made  our 
own.  The  wheels  hold  the  beam  steady,  exactly  at 
the  right  depth.  It  is  an  old  device  that  has  been  in 
use  for  centuries  in  Europe,  but  has  not  been  imi- 
tated in  America  simply  because  we-  have  run  after 
cheapness  too  much,  and  because  we  'have  not  done 
much  good  plowing  as  yet.  With  these  wheel  trucks 
a  small  boy  can  plow  alfalfa  sod  almost  as  well  as  a 


PLOWING  ALFALFA   SOD.  421 

man.  A  boy  will  do  better  plowing  with  a  good 
plow  nicely  adjusted  with  these  wheels  on  the  beam 
than  any  man  could  do  without  the  wheels. 

The  File  Important. — The  file  is  one  of  the  essen- 
tials. On  Woodland  Farm  where  there  are  some 
small  stones  in  the  land  we  file  the  plows  sharp 
after  they  have  run  about  %  mile  or  a  little  more. 
It  takes  only  a  few  minutes  to  do  this  and  no  longer 
to  file  often  than  it  would  to  file  occasionally,  and 
by  filing  'often  the  plow  is  always  sharp.  The  horses 
are  resting  while  you  file. 

Early  Start  Desirable. — It  is  rather  slow  work 
plowing  alfalfa  sod  at  best.  Therefore  it  is  well  to 
get  at  it  early  in  the  season.  After  growth  starts  in 
spring  alfalfa  roots  get  very  tough,  and  if  the  land 
is  dry  and  hard  at  the  same  time  the  plowing  is 
difficult. 

To  sum  up,  get  a  strong  plow,  preferably  with  a 
good  stiff  wooden  beam.  Put  truck  wheels  on  the 
beam,  well  forward,  to  hold  it  true.  Have  the  share 
wide  and  sharp.  If  the  roots  are  old  and  tough 
have  a  wing  fastened  on  that  will  run  under  the 
edge  of  the  next  furrow  and  cut  off  the  roots  there 
for  about  three  inches.  Keep  the  plow  sharp.  Take 
time.  We  have  not  found  it  necessary  or  advisable 
to  plow  twice ;  one  good  plowing  at  a  depth  of  about 
eight  inches  has  done  the  work  well  for  us  and  would 
do  the  work  anywhere  probably  wherever  the  land 
was  cultivated  the  following  season. 

Breaking  Sod  in  Colorado. — Prof.  Philo  K.  Blinn 


422  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

of  the  Colorado  experiment  station  gives  his   ex- 
perience thus  in  "Tha  Rural  New  Yorker ": 

The  attempt  to  break  alfalfa  with  the  ordinary  plow  is  usually 
a  miserable  failure,  as  it  is  not  suited  to  the  work.  A  very  suc- 
cessful alfalfa  plow  can  be  made  by  adjusting  and  making  a  few 
changes  in  the  regular  sod  plow  or  prairie  breaker.  The  essen- 
tial points  to  consider  are:  The  long  strong  beam  to  steady  the 
plow;  the  long  landside  to  resist  the  tremendous  cutting  strain. 
It  is  often  necessary  to  reinforce  the  beam  with  heavy  iron  to 
withstand  the  draft.  The  plow  should  be  adjusted  to  cut  a  very 
narrow  furrow,  not  over  12  inches;  an  extra  long  share  to  lap 
part  of  the  last  furrow  to  prevent  the  roots  near  the  heel  from 
whipping  around,  only  partly  cut  off.  This  can  also  be  prevented 
by  a  horizontal  cutter  bolted  to  the  bottom  of  the  landside,  thus 
partly  cutting  the  roots  in  the  next  furrow;  this  cutter  is 
forged  with  a  right-angle  shoulder  that  fits  and  fastens  with  the 
bolt  through  the  short  landslide. 

The  next  essential  is  a  very  sharp  share,  drawn  thin  and  har- 
dened so  that  it  will  not  be  brittle.  A  sharp  share  should  be 
replaced  each  day  and  a  good  file  is  necessary  to  touch  up  the 
edge  once  in  a  while.  Breaking  alfalfa  on  stony  land  is  very 
difficult,  and  is  extremely  hard  on  plow  shares.  The  most  es- 
sential point  in  an  alfalfa  breaker  is  a  long,  heavy,  well-pointed 
share  with  a  very  wide  wing  six  or  eight  inches  at  the  heel,  and 
1%  to  two  inches  of  the  edge  rolled  so  as  to  run  almost  flat  on 
the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  thus  cutting  ahead  of  the  lift  and 
avoiding  a  dragging  cut.  The  standard  plow  factories  are  mak- 
ing for  the  western  farmer  alfalfa  specials  with  extra  alfalfa 
shares;  these  are  chiefly  in  sulky  plows,  but  where  it  is  not 
practical  to  afford  such  a  plow  the  walking  breaker  can  be  fitted 
and  adjusted  to  do  excellent  work,  though  it  is  somewhat  harder 
for  the  man  that  holds  the  plow.  Alfalfa  breaking  usually  re- 
quires three  to  four  good  heavy  horses  for  a  team. 

The  depth  and  time  to  plow  alfalfa  are  somewhat  mooted  ques- 
tions. They  vary  with  conditions.  It  is  usually  conceded  that 
fall  breaking  is  a  success,  but  in  Colorado,  alfalfa  is  generally 
plowed  shallow,  four  to  five  inches  deep,  so  that  the  roots  and 
crowns  may  be  well  harrowed  to  the  surface  to  dry  out.  It  is 
then  replowed  one  or  two  inches  deeper  than  it  was  broken. 
Alfalfa  when  dormant,  if  plowed  under  in  moist  soil,  will  readily 
take  root  and  grow  if  not  harrowed  out.  Many  farmers  are  hav- 
ing better  success  in  breaking  alfalfa  late  in  the  spring,  after  the 
alfalfa  is  10  or  12  inches  high,  plowing  under  the  green  manure. 


PLOWING  ALFALFA   SOD.  423 

The  growth  seems  to  have  exhausted  the  stored  plant  food,  and 
if  the  roots  are  all  cut  very  little  will  start  to  grow,  especially 
if  the  field  is  planted  to  some  crop  like  potatoes,  that  can  be 
well  cultivated.  Complaints  about  difficulties  in  plowing  alfalfa 
usually  come  from  sections  where  rotation  with  alfalfa  has  not 
been  started  long. 


ANIMAL  PESTS  AND  DISEASES. 

The  pocket  gopher  is  a  serious  pest  in  the  alfalfa 
field.  In  many  western  states  it  is  indeed  a  most 
serious  menace.  In  all  the  non-irrigated  parts  of 
California  the  gopher  cuts  short  the  life  of  an  al- 
falfa field.  Irrigation  stops  their  work,  but  irriga- 
tion is  not  always  possible.  T.  J.  Headlee  of  the 
Kansas  experiment  station  thus  discusses  the  gopher 
and  his  work  in  Bulletin  155 : 

No  other  animal  attacking  the  underground  parts  of  alfalfa  can 
equal  or  even  closely  approach  the  gopher  in  destructiveness. 
While  the  pocket  gopher  occurs  in  all  parts  of  the  state  it  is  most 
abundant  and  destructive  in  the  valleys  of  the  Kansas  River  and 
its  main  tributaries.  The  plains  pocket  gopher  (Geomys  lutes- 
cens,  Merr.)  holds  sway  on  the  western  plains,  and  the  prairie 
pocket  gopher  (Geomys  bursarius,  Shaw)  infests  most  of  the  re- 
mainder of  the  state.  These  two  species  show  such  a  similarity 
in  life-habits  that  for  the  consideration  of  methods  of  combating 
a  knowledge  of  the  prairie  form  will  serve  for  both. 

The  prairie  pocket  gopher  is  short  and  stocky,  showing  an 
average  length  of  about  ten  inches  from  the  tip  of  its  nose  to 
the  end  of  its  stubby,  hairless  tail.  Its  body  is  covered  with 
silky  dark  brown  hair,  its  eyes  are  small  and  well  protected  by 
fur,  and  its  ears  are  so  short  as  hardly  to  cause  a  ripple  in  the 
smooth-lying  fur  of  the  head.  Its  front  feet  are  furnished  with 
long,  strong  claws  and  otherwise  modified  for  digging.  In  fact, 
the  whole  structure  of  the  animal  fits  it  for  its  subterranean 
existence. 

The  gopher  tunnels  hither  and  thither  in  search  of  food,  at 
intervals  digging  short  lateral  burrows  to  the  surface  through 
which  it  pushes  the  excavated  earth  and  dumps  it  outside,  thus 
forming  the  mounds  that  indicate  its  presence  and  mark  its  pro- 
gress. These  animals  are  most  active  during  the  fall  and  spring, 
and  one  individual  may  throw  up  several  mounds  daily  for  sev- 
eral weeks  at  a  time.  During  these  seasons  the  work  of  a  few 
gophers  in  an  alfalfa-field  may  cause  the  uninitiated  to  suppose 

(424) 


ANIMAL,  PESTS  AND   DISEASES.  425 

the  field  infested  by  dozens.  Although  the  animals  are  most  ac- 
tive at  these  times  they  work  only  less  vigorously  throughout 
the  rest  of  the  year.  Even  in  winter,  whenever  the  ground  is 
sufficiently  free  from  frost,  they  throw  up  mounds  here  and 
there. 

Except  for  possible  brief  excursions  at  the  periods  of  mating 
and  migrating,  the  gopher  passes  practically  its  entire  life  in  its 
burrow.  Indeed,  it  is  a  rare  occurrence  to  find  one  abroad  on  any 
errand.  They  appear  to  live  solitary,  each  individual  gopher  ap- 
parently bent  on  having  his  world  to  himself,  and  each  digging 
and  taking  care  of  his  own  dwelling.  Doubtless  where  fields  are 
so  badly  infested  that  tunnels  cross  and  recross,  more  than  one 
gopher  may  be  trapped  in  the  same  runway.  The  female  pro- 
duces but  one  litter  of  young  per  year,  yet  because  of  her 
sheltered  life  raises  enough  of  them  that  the  species  is  constantly 
increasing. 

The  natural  food  of  the  gopher  consists  of  succulent  roots  and 
such  green  vegetation  as  can  be  dragged  from  the  surface  into 
the  burrow.  The  coming  of  alfalfa,  with  its  deep-growing  suc- 
culent roots  has  largely  solved  the  question  of  food  supply  for 
this  animal  by  providing  it  with  an  abundance  easily  accessible 
both  in  winter  and  summer.  Truly  the  conditions  of  the  alfalfa 
field  are  such  as  to  render  life  easy  for  the  gopher  tribe. 

Not  only  does  the  animal  injure  alfalfa  by  actual  consump- 
tion of  the  roots,  but  by  covering  up  a  considerable  portion 
(sometimes  20  per  cent)  of  the  area  badly  infested,  and  by 
rendering  the  crop  in  fields  so  infested  difficult  to  harvest. 

Many  methods  of  combating  these  animals  have  been  tested  at 
this  station,  and  poisoning  has  been  found  at  once  the  quickest 
and  most  efficient.  Shooting  and  trapping  require  too  much 
time,  and  fumigation  is  inefficient.  Pieces  of  potato,  apple,  and 
sweet  potato,  about  the  size  of  the  end  of  the  little  finger, 
poisoned  by  inserting  a  few  crystals  of  strychnine  into  slits 
made  with  the  point  of  a  knife,  or  raisins  and  prunes  treated  in 
the  same  way,  and  carefully  introduced  into  fresh  runways,  have 
given  excellent  results.  While  these  baits  are  as  successful  as 
any  used,  much  time  is  required  in  their  preparation,  and  the 
station  has  therefore  undertaken  the  manufacture  and  sale  (at 
cost  of  materials  and  labor)  of  a  poisoned  syrup,  one  quart  of 
which  is  sufficient  to  poison  one-half  bushel  of  corn.  The  corn 
is  put  to  soak  in  hot  water  the  evening  of  the  day  before  the 
bait  is  to  be  used.  In  the  morning  the  water  is  drained  off,  the 
requisite  amount  of  poison  poured  over  the  corn  and  thoroughly 
mixed  with  it.  Cornmeal  may  be  used  to  take  up  the  excess 


423  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

moisture,  and  the  bait  is  ready  for  use.  Any  citizen  of  the  state 
is  entitled  to  a  copy  of  the  formula  according  to  which  this 
syrup  is  manufactured  and  may  make  it  for  himself  if  he  so  de- 
sires. The  station  sells  the  prepared  poison  for  $1.10  per  quart, 
delivered  to  the  express  or  freight  agent  at  Manhattan. 

Whatever  sort  of  bait  may  be  used,  success  depends  upon  in- 
troducing it  into  fresh  runways.  Choose  fresh-looking  mounds 
and  prod  on  the  line  between  them  with  a  wagon  rod  or  sharp- 
ened broom  handle  to  locate  the  runway;  or,  failing  there,  prod 
about  the  freshest  mounds.  The  sudden  giving  of  the  soil  and 
the  apparent  looseness  of  the  stick  in  it  is  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  runway  has  been  located.  Remove  the  prod  and  drop  a  tea- 
spoonful  of  the  poisoned  bait  into  the  burrow,  leaving  the  hole 
open.  Level  the  mounds  with  some  sort  of  a  drag,  and  as  fast 
as  new  ones  appear  locate  the  burrows  and  put  poison  into  them. 

In  case  the  area  to  be  treated  is  large  some  sort  of  a  special 
instrument  for  locating  the  runways  is  desirable.  A  very  good 
one  can  be  made  from  a  spade  handle  by  covering  the  pointed 
end  with  iron  and  fastening  a  foot-rest  about  fifteen  inches  above 
the  point. 

By  the  use  of  the  means  just  described  the  enterprising  farmer 
can  rid  his  land  of  gophers  and  keep  them  out  of  it.  Once  the 
farm  is  freed,  the  vigilance  and  prompt  treatment  necessary  to 
keep  it  so  will  require  but  little  time  and  effort. 

No  other  creatures  now  attack  the  underground  parts  of  alfalfa 
with  sufficient  vigor  to  demand  attention,  althought  moles  and 
spermophiles,  particularly  the  latter,  may  become  injurious  later. 

Grasshoppers. — Several  species  of  grasshoppers 
feed  on  alfalfa  and  do  it  at  times  notable  injury.  Fall 
disking  is  recommended  to  destroy  the  egg  masses 
of  the  hoppers  and  this  will  perhaps  be  pretty  effi- 
cient so  far  as  it  goes,  though  no  doubt  millions  of 
eggs  may  be  deposited  along  the  margin  of  the  fields 
and  along  roadsides.  For  the  hoppers  that  come  in 
spite  of  this  disking  the  hopper-dozer  is  recom- 
mended. Essentially  a  dozer  consists  of  a  shallow, 
high-backed  pan  mounted  on  runners  high  enough 
so  that  its  bottom  will  scrape  the  tops  of  the  alfalfa 


ANIMAL  PESTS  AND   DISEASES.  427 

stems.  The  dozer  is  filled  with  water  and  coated 
with  a  film  of  kerosene.  It  is  used  in  the  warm  part 
of  the  day  because  then  the  hoppers  are  decidedly 
most  active. 

When  it  is  drawn  forward  through  the  infested 
field,  the  hoppers  spring  to  get  out  of  its  way  and 
most  of  them  may  land  in  the  water  and  be  de- 
stroyed by  contact  with  the  kerosene.  If  enough 
turkeys  and  guineas  are  kept  hoppers  will  be  much 
reduced  in  numbers. 

Ants. — Webworms,  army  worms,  fall  army 
worms,  cutworms  and  blister  beetles  all  occasionally 
injure  alfalfa  more  or  less.  Mound-building  ants  are 
troublesome  in  western  fields.  The  ants  are  readily 
destroyed  by  use  of  bisulphide  of  carbon.  Taking 
note  that  the  ants  are  canny  and  carefully  guard 
their  homes,  Prof.  Headlee  thus  comments : 

On  the  approach  of  a  storm  a  large  force  is  employed  and  the 
gateways  are  closed  in  haste,  but  when  it  has  passed  they  are  re- 
opened and  the  ants  return  to  their  work. 

The  ant  colonies  are  too  few  to  decrease  the  yield  seriously, 
although  occasionally  they  will  destroy  the  alfalfa  on  from  one 
to  two  per  cent  of  the  total  area  of  a  badly  infested  field.  Their 
claim  to  rank  as  alfalfa  pests  lies  principally  in  the  increased 
difficulty  of  harvesting  the  crop  when  they  are  present. 

Extended  experiments  have  shown  that  the  ants  can  most 
easily  and  efficiently  be  controlled  by  fumigating  the  nest  with 
carbon  bisulphide  as  follows:  Set  fumigation  only  when  gateways 
are  open;  invert  a  galvanized  iron  vessel,  such  a  common  wash- 
tub,  over  one  or  more  of  the  openings,  covering  as  much  of  the 
mound  as  possible;  firmly  pack  soil  over  such  holes  as  the*  tub 
will  not  reach;  introduce  under  the  tub  and  near  the  holes  a 
shallow  dish  containing  from  one  to  three  ounces  (depending  on 
the  size  of  the  nest)  of  carbon  bisulphide;  set  the  tub  down  and 
quickly  pack  soil  about  the  rim,  making  it  as  nearly  air-tight  as 
possible;  allow  to  stand  for  five  hours.  The  forming  vapor,  being 


428  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

heavier  than  air,  sinks  downward  and  comes  to  fill  every  cham- 
ber and  gallery,  destroying  all  the  occupants. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  carbon  bisulphide  is  as  explosive 
as  gasoline  and  must  be  used  with  equal  care. 

Conclusions. — The  conclusions  of  Prof.  Headlee  as 
to  the  proper  way  to  combat  these  insect  enemies  of 
alfalfa  are  as  follows: 

When  we  call  to  mind  that  the  grasshopper  passes  the  winter 
in  the  soil  in  the  egg  stage,  the  web  .worm,  army  worm  and  cut- 
worms remain  in  the  soil  over  winter  as  larvae,  the  fall  army- 
worm  as  a  pupa,  that  the  blister-beetles  are  dependent  upon  a 
supply  of  grasshopper  eggs  for  food  during  one  necessary  stage,  it 
is  plain  that  thoroughly  stirring  the  soil  with  a  disk-harrow 
(preferably  the  spike-tooth  kind)  just  after  the  frost  is  out  of  the 
ground  and  before  the  plants  begin  to  grow,  or,  better  still,  in  the 
late  fall  just  before  the  ground  freezes,  if  such  a  proceeding 
would  not  injure  the  plants,  will  go  far  toward  controlling  the  in- 
sects enumerated.  During  the  summer,  when  these  insects  are 
in  the  field  or  when  the  alfalfa  is  attacked  by  clover  hay  worms, 
leaf-hoppers,  mound-building  prairie  ants  or  pocket  gophers,  the 
grower  must  resort  to  measures  especially  fitted  to  destroy  the 
enemy  in  question. 

To  this  I  would  add  that  in  the  eastern  states 
insect  enemies  are  much  less  in  evidence  in  alfalfa 
fields,  owing  probably  to  the  cold,  wet  winters,  and 
the  pocket  gopher  has  not  yet  been  introduced, 
though  he  is  probably  on  his  way.  Woodchucks  or 
groundhogs  are  a  pest  in  eastern  meadows ;  they  are 
readily  destroyed  by  use  of  bisulphide  of  carbon. 
The  way  to  use  it  is  to  saturate  a  rag  with  a  table- 
spoonful  or  more,  throw  it  down  the  burrow  as  far 
as  you  can  and  immediately  stop  the  hole  tight.  A 
sod  may  be  laid  over  it  first,  then  earth  heaped  on  it. 
All  holes  should  be  treated  as  they  may  communicate 
with  each  other. 


ANIMAL  PESTS  AND   DISEASES.  429 

Prairie  dogs  are  readily  suffocated  with  the  same 
chemical,  or  they  may  be  poisoned  in  early  spring, 
before  growth  starts,  or  they  may  be  drowned  out  if 
irrigation  water  is  available. 

For  the  neighbors'  chickens  no  adequate  remedy 
has  been  discovered. 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED. 

Alfalfa  does  not  seed  well  as  a  general  rule  in  any 
moist  climate.  Hardly  any  alfalfa  seed  is  threshed 
east  of  the  Missouri  Biver.  A  little  is  harvested  in 
Ontario  and  occasionally  a  man  has  saved  and 
threshed  seed  in  Illinois,  Indiana,  Ohio  or  New 
York.  Stray  plants  in  almost  any  location,  stand- 
ing out  by  themselves,  especially  if  on  a  bank  or 
some  dry  situation,  will  usually  set  full  of  seed.  A 
field  adjacent  might  be  left  for  seed  and  make 
hardly  any  at  all.  Why  this  is  we  do  not  understand. 

It  will  seldom  pay  the  eastern  farmer  to  attempt 
to  grow  alfalfa  seed.  He  can  buy  it  cheaper  than 
he  can  grow  it.  Even  in  Kansas,  Nebraska  and  other 
western  alfalfa  seed-producing  states  the  seed  crop 
fails  if  the  season  happens  to  be  wet. 

Adaptability  of  Seed. — Alfalfa  seed  is  valuable 
for  different  sections  according  to  its  source.  Thus 
seed  from  Nebraska  or  Kansas  thrives  in  Ohio,  In- 
diana^and  New  York.  Seed  from  Arizona  is  not 
hardy  in  Nebraska.  Seed  from  Montana  will  not 
produce  so  well  in  Texas  as  seed  from  Arizona.  Al- 
falfa is  like  corn,  it  adapts  itself  to  climates.  The 
rule  of  survival  of  the  fittest  comes  in  play  also,  so 
it  is  most  wise  to  take  account  of  the  place  where 
your  seed  was  grown.  Seed  imported  may  thrive 
in  one  part  of  the  United  States  and  fail  to  thrive 

(430) 


GROWING   ALFALFA   SEED.  431 

well  in  another  part.  Seed  from  Peru  will  winter- 
kill in  one  place  and  thrive  exceedingly  in  another. 
Arabian  seed  gives  a  good  account  of  itself  in  one 
part,  is  a  failure  in  another.  As  with  corn,  it  is  safer 
to  take  seed  from  north  of  you  rather  than  from 
south  of  you. 

A  Money-Making  Crop. — Fortunes  may  be  made 
in  growing  alfalfa  seed.  Millions  of  acres  that  are 
too  dry  for  profitable  grain-growing  will  grow  al- 
falfa seed  under  right  treatment.  The  demand  is 
insistent  and  rapidly  increasing.  The  supply  is  not 
often  equal  to  the  demand.  In  1890  I  bought  alfalfa 
seed  for  $4  per  bushel  of  60  Ibs.  It  is  now  worth  $10 
to  $12.  It  is  very  desirable  that  alfalfa  seed  should 
be  cheaper.  It  is  a  plant  that  would  come  into  short 
rotations  if  only  the  seed  were  cheap  enough.  There 
is  profit  in  growing  it  at  half -the  present  prices. 

A  Kansas  View. — The  following  study  of  alfalfa 
seed  growing  is  by  Prof.  A.  M.  TenEyck  of  the  Kan- 
sas agricultural  college : 

The  Soil. — Good  crops  of  alfalfa  seed  may  be  produced  on  a 
variety  of  soils,  ranging  from  black  gumbo  to  sandy  loam,  but 
the  general  experience  is  that  the  soil  should  be  well  drained  and 
of  average  fertility.  Very  fertile  land,  and  soil  supplied  with  an 
abundance  of  moisture,  produces  plant,  not  seed.  On  this  ac- 
count in  central  and  eastern  Kansas  upland  or  second  bottom  is 
usually  considered  superior  to  bottom-land  for  alfalfa  seed  pro- 
duction. A  soil  poor  in  fertility  will  produce  only  light  crops  of 
seed,  while  large  yields  of  seed  may  be  produced  from  fertile  land 
in  a  favorable  season,  but  with  unfavorable  weather  conditions 
the  seed  crop  is  more  apt  to  fail  on  the  more  fertile  soil.  Rank- 
ness  in  growth  of  plant  is  not  conducive  to  the  production  of  seed. 
Alfalfa  will  not  thrive  on  a  shallow  soil  with  hard-pan  subsoil,  or 
on  low  or  poorly  drained  land. 


432  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

The  Weather. — In  the  opinion  of  many  alfalfa  growers  the 
weather  is  a  more  important  factor  than  the  soil  in  determining 
the  production  of  a  good  crop  of  alfalfa  seed.  On  a  given  soil 
capable  of  growing  alfalfa,  the  weather  is  the  determining  factor 
in  seed  production,  or  it  may  be  as  truly  said  that  the  moisture 
supply,  in  time  and  amount,  largely  determines  the  alfalfa  seed 
crop  on  any  field.  On  this  point  a  majority  agree  that  the  alfalfa 
should  have  a  moderate  supply  of  water  in  the  early  part  of  the 
season,  and  during  the  early  growth  of  the  seed  crop — just  suffi- 
cient moisture  to  produce  a  vigorous,  healthy  plant.  To  insure  a 
good  crop  of  seed  no  heavy  rains  should  fall  after  the  alfalfa  be- 
gins to  blossom  until  most  of  the  bloom  has  fallen,  and  then  the 
weather  should  continue  rather  dry  until  the  seed  crop  is  har- 
vested and  threshed,  or  put  into  the  stack.  Wet  weather  in  the 
latter  stage  of  its  growth  causes  a  continuation  of  blooming  and 
the  starting  of  a  second  growth  of  alfalfa,  which  interferes  with 
an  even  and  proper  maturing  of  the  seed.  Also  it  has  been  ob- 
served that  the  hot,  dry  weather,  with  a  deficiency  of  moisture  in 
the  soil  during  the  seed-forming  period,  has  resulted  in  light, 
blasted  seed  and  a  low  yield.  It  is  said  that  under  the  conditions 
observed  alfalfa  flowers  fail  to  secrete  nectar  and  are  hence  not 
fertilized  because  not  visited  by  bees  and  other  insects. 

Other  Factors. — A  rather  thin  stand  of  alfalfa  with  vigorous 
plants  of  average  growth  favors  the  development  of  seed,  while  a 
thick  stand  and  a  rank  growth  of  plant  are  considered  unfavor- 
able conditions  for  seed  production.  The  seed  fields  should  be 
comparatively  free  from  weeds.  By  cultivating  the  alfalfa  early 
in  the  spring,  or  perhaps  after  the  first  or  second  hay  crop  is  re- 
moved, the  weeds  may  be  held  in  check  and  the  soil  kept  in  good 
tilth,  resulting  in  strong,  well  developed  plants,  capable  of  pro- 
ducing large  yields  of  sound,  plump  seed. 

Effect  of  Bees  and  Other  Insect. — Until  recently  it  was  gen- 
erally understood  that  to  fertilize  alfalfa  blossoms  required  that 
pollen  from  a  separate  flower  be  brought  in  contact  with  the 
pistil  of  another  flower.  This,  it  was  explained,  was  doubtless 
largely  accomplished  by  insects,  which  transferred  the  pollen 
from  blossom  to  blossom  while  they  sipped  the  nectar  which  each 
flower  secretes  apparently  for  this  very  purpose  of  attracting  in- 
sects. It  is  probable  that  cross-fertilization  is  largely  accom- 
plished in  this  way,  but,  as  shown  by  Roberts  and  Freeman  of 
this  station,  alfalfa  blossoms  may  be  self-fertilized.  It  is  only 
necessary  that  the  "trigger  mechanism"  which  controls  the  fer- 
tilizing organs  be  sprung  by  the  touch  of  an  insect  or  other 
means,  possibly  the  shaking  of  the  plant  in  a  strong  wind,  when 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  433 

the  confined  stamens  and  pistil  fly  up  and  the  pollen  is  dusted 
against  the  stigma  and  over  the  insect,  or,  in  case  of  hand  pollina- 
tion, the  instrument  which  is  used  to  spring  the  little  flower 
trap.  Thus  the  insect,  passing  from  blossom  to  blossom,  mixes 
the  pollen  of  many  flowers,  but  the  hand  pollination  has  shown 
that  the  blossom  may  be  fertilized  with  its  own  pollen. 

Farmers  are  divided  upon  this  point  as  to  whether  insects  are 
necessary  or  useful  in  the  pollinization  of  the  flowers.  Many 
maintain  that  as  good  crops  of  seeds  were  produced  many  years 
ago,  before  bees  were  introduced  into  a  certain  locality,  as  are 
produced  now.  Others  state  that  in  a  locality  where  bees  are 
kept  there  is  no  noticeable  difference  in  seed  yields  near  apiaries 
compared  to  yields  from  fields  further  away.  Such  data,  how- 
ever, do  not  disprove  the  facts  as  stated  above.  Doubtless  other 
insects  besides  bees  assist  in  fertilizing  the  alfalfa  flowers.  If 
you  will  observe  an  alfalfa  field  in  full  bloom  you  will  usually 
find  it  swarming  with  insects  of  various  kinds — bees,  flies,  butter- 
flies, millers,  ants,  and  sometimes  grasshoppers — although  it  is 
doubtful  whether  the  latter  are  of  any  benefit,  and  certain  it  is 
that  they  are  often  a  pest  when  numerous.  It  is  quite  possible 
that  ants  are  among  the  important  insects  concerned  in  fertilizing 
alfalfa  blossoms.  There  is  some  proof  that  bees  do  assist  in  pol- 
linating the  alfalfa  flowers. 

Although  reports  on  this  point  have  not  been  very  authentic, 
there  seems  to  be  little  question  but  that  bees  may  assist  in  fer- 
tilizing the  alfalfa  blossoms  and  thus  increase  the  yield  and  im- 
prove the  quality  of  the  seed.  At  this  station  alfalfa  plants  cov- 
ered with  fine  netting  produced  no  seed  except  in  flowers  which 
pushed  through  or  against  the  netting,  allowing  fertilization  by 
insects  from  the  outside.  On  the  other  hand,  adjacent  plants  not 
covered  were  well  filled  with  seed  pods. 

There  should  be  a  double  benefit  to  the  alfalfa  seed  grower 
who  keeps  bees,  for  not  only  may  he  secure  larger  yields  of  a 
superior  quality  of  seed  by  reason  of  the  work  of  the  bees,  but 
the  alfalfa  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  honey  plants.  In  the 
alfalfa  districts  of  the  state  the  yield  of  honey  per  hive,  according 
to  the  report  of  Secretary  Coburn  of  the  State  Board  of  Agricul- 
ture, is  much  larger  than  in  the  sections  where  alfalfa  is  but  little 
grown;  and  not  only  may  the  bees  in  alfalfa  districts  make 
double  or  treble  the  usual  amount  of  honey,  but  this  honey  is 
very  superior  in  quality,  unequaled  even  by  the  white  clover 
honey  of  the  eastern  states.  "In  favorable  seasons,  100  pounds 
of  honey  per  hive  is  no  uncommon  yield,  in  alfalfa  regions." 

Which  Crop  to  Save. — The  region  lying  west  of  the  Missouri 


434  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

River  grows  most  of  the  alfalfa  seed  produced  in  the  United 
States.  A  large  part  of  this  seed  is  grown  by  irrigation  in  the 
western  part  of  the  great  plains  region,  in  several  of  the  moun- 
tain states,  and  in  California.  Much  seed  is  also  produced  with- 
out irrigation  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  great  plains  region.  The 
dry  climatic  conditions  of  the  West  make  this  section  of  the  coun- 
try better  adapted  for  the  production  of  alfalfa  seed  than  the 
more  humid  regions  of  the  central  and  eastern  states.  The  best 
quality  of  seed  and  the  largest  crops  are  produced  in  an  arid 
climate  by  irrigation.  The  supply  of  water  and  the  weather  con- 
ditions during  the  growing  period  of  the  crop  largely  determine 
which  crop  to  save  for  seed.  Any  one  of  a  season's  crops  may 
produce  good  seed  provided  the  soil  and  weather  conditions  are 
right  for  growing  and  maturing  seed.  About  the  same  time  is 
required  to  produce  a  crop  of  seed  as  is  required  to  produce  two 
crops  of  hay.  In  the  irrigated  districts  of  Colorado  and  western 
Kansas  the  first  crop  is  often  saved  for  seed,  the  practice  being 
not  to  irrigate  this  crop,  thus  causing  a  medium  but  thrifty 
growth  of  plant,  which,  with  the  favorable  weather  conditions 
prevailing  in  the  arid  regions,  usually  seeds  well. 

On  the  whole,  especially  in  the  more  humid  regions,  the  second 
or  third  crop  is  more  often  saved  for  seed  than  the  first  crop, 
mainly  because  more  favorable  weather  conditions  prevail  in  the 
late  summer  and  early  fall  for  maturing  the  seed.  Also,  the  in- 
sects which  may  help  to  fertilize  the  blossoms  are  more  numer- 
ous in  the  latter  part  of  the  season.  Only  in  the  southern  states 
is  it  possible  to  use  a  later  crop  than  the  third  for  seed. 

In  those  latitudes  where  the  third  crop  may  mature  seed  be- 
fore cool  weather  and  frost,  the  choice  between  the  second  and 
third  crop  for  seed  is  decided  mainly  by  the  weather  conditions 
at  and  before  the  blossoming  period.  If  the  supply  of  moisture 
has  been  moderate  and  the  alfalfa  has  made  a  proper  growth  and 
little  or  no  rain  falls  during  the  blossoming  period,  the  second 
crop  will  likely  seed  well.  However,  if  the  second  crop  is  rank  in 
growth,  or  heavy  rain  falls  just  previous  to  or  when  the  alfalfa  is 
in  bloom,  it  is  best  to  cut  for  hay.  In  the  non-irrigated  area  of 
the  semi-arid  portions  of  Kansas  and  other  western  states  drought 
is  apt  to  prevail  in  the  latter  part  of  the  season,  by  which  the 
growth  of  the  third  crop  is  greatly  reduced,  causing  only  a  small 
development  of  seed.  In  such  districts  the  second  crop  should  be 
saved  for  seed,  or  perhaps  the  first  crop,  especially  on  dry  up- 
lands which  may  produce  only  one  good  crop  (the  first  crop)  in  a 
season.  In  northwestern  Kansas  and  Nebraska  it  is  doubtless 
safer  to  use  the  second  crop  for  seed,  as  the  third  crop  is  apt  to 


GROWING  AL.FALFA  SEED.  435 

be  caught  immature  by  frost.  In  central-nortbern  Kansas  a  farm- 
er must  usually  decide  whether  to  save  the  second  or  third  crop; 
if  the  third  crop  is  to  be  saved  for  seed  it  is  best  to  cut  the  first 
and  second  crops  a  little  early,  giving  as  much  time  as  possible 
for  the  third  crop  to  mature.  Also  the  early  cutting  for  hay  may 
give  not  only  an  earlier  but  a  more  vigorous  growth  to  the  third 
crop,  insuring  a  large  production  of  seed  in  favorable  seasons. 

Some  growers  state  that  the  third  crop  should  be  preferred  for 
seed  because  it  blooms  and  matures  more  evenly  and  in  a  shorter 
period  than  the  second  crop.  If  this  is  a  fact,  it  may  be  largely 
due  to  the  favorable  weather  conditions  which  are  more  apt  to 
prevail  during  the  season  of  the  year  when  the  third  crop  is 
growing  and  maturing.  When  it  can  be  successfully  done,  using 
the  third  crop  for  seed  has  an  advantage  over  using  the  second 
crop  in  that  it  allows  the  harvest  of  two  good  hay  crops,  while 
if  the  second  crop  is  harvested  for  seed  only  one  crop  of  hay  is 
usually  secured  that  season,  the  growth  after  the  seed  crop  being 
insufficient,  as  a  rule,  in  the  sections  of  Kansas  named,  to  produce 
hay. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  third  crop  is  matured  for  seed 
sufficient  growth  of  the  alfalfa  usually  takes  places  after  remov- 
ing the  crop  to  give  a  good  winter  cover,  and  it  is  the  general 
report  by  those  who  practice  this  plan  that,  taking  the  third  cut- 
ting for  seed  does  not  exhaust  the  alfalfa  plants  so  much  as  tak- 
ing the  second  crop  for  seed,  and  a  similar  observation  is  made 
as  regards  the  seeding  of  the  first  or  second  crop,  some  growers 
reporting  that  when  the  first  crop  was  allowed  to  mature  seed 
there  was  little  or  no  growth  after  the  seed  crop  was  removed, 
during  the  balance  of  the  season. 

Insect  pests,  as  the  grasshopper  and  web-worm,  are  also  a  factor 
in  determining  whether  the  second  crop,  or  any  crop,  may  be 
safely  saved  for  seed.  The  web-worm  is  more  likely  to  attack  the 
second  crop,  but  in  southern  Kansas  the  third  crop  is  also  apt  to 
be  injured  by  this  pest. 

A  Good  Seed  Crop. — Alfalfa  is  a  very  uncertain  seed  crop,  and 
it  is  a  difficult  matter  to  estimate  with  any  degree  of  accuracy 
early  in  the  growth  of  the  crop  what  the  yield  of  seed  will  be. 
If  the  weather  and  soil  conditions  have  been  favorable  and  the 
alfalfa  has  made  a  proper  growth  (not  too  thick  and  rank,  but 
rather  the  stems  should  be  of  medium  height  and  stout,  with 
many  branches),  and  there  is  an  even,  heavy  bloom  over  the  field 
in  five  or  six  days  after  the  first  bloom  appears,  and  no  rain  falls, 
the  prospect  for  seed  is  good.  The  blooms  should  be  large  and  of 
a  dark,  rich  color.  When  the  blossoms  are  small  and  light  in 


436  ALFALFA  FARMING  IN  AMERICA. 

color  it  is  evidence  of  a  light  crop  of  seed.  Again,  if  the  blos- 
soms fertilize  properly  the  flowers  dry  and  stick  to  the  stem  a 
few  days,  while  if  they  are  not  fertilized  they  drop  quickly  and 
the  stems  stand  bare.  Even  before  the  bloom  falls  the  circular 
pods  are  visible.  The  pods  should  appear  thickly  set  on  the  stems, 
two  or  more  in  a  group,  to  insure  a  good  seed  crop.  Finally,  if  by 
examination  the  pods  are  found  to  be  well  filled  with  seed,  the 
crop  is  assured,  barring  accidents  by  which  the  seed  may  be  lost 
in  harvesting  and  thrashing. 

From  the  above  suggestions  it  may  seem  to  the  novice  that  he 
would  be  able  to  judge  fairly  well  when  a  crop  of  alfalfa  should 
be  left  for  seed;  yet  old  growers  do  not  find  it  easy  to  decide.  A 
grower  who  has  had  twenty  years'  experience  writes  as  follows: 
"I  cannot  tell  when  a  good  crop  will  be  made  until  near  matu- 
rity, as  the  blossoms  often  fail  to  seed,  and  then  too  much  rain 
may  cause  well-fruited  alfalfa  to  take  a  second  growth  and  con- 
tinue to  bloom  and  ripen  seed  irregularly.  Also  during  damp 
rainy  weather  the  ripe  seed  may  sprout,  or  when  the  weather 
turns  dry  the  ripe  pods  may  burst,  shattering  their  seed."  It  is 
even  possible  that  after  a  crop  is  ready  to  harvest  it  may  be  lost 
or  badly  damaged  by  excessive  rain,  causing  the  seed  to  sprout  or 
the  pods  to  burst  when  they  dry  in  the  sun. 

Relative  to  saving  a  crop  of  alfalfa  for  seed  these  suggestions 
may  be  given:  If  the  weather  has  been  wet  and  the  alfalfa  grows 
too  rank,  cut  for  hay.  If  heavy  rains  fall  while  the  alfalfa  is  in 
bloom,  or  before  the  flowers  are  fertilized,  cut  for  hay.  If  for  any 
reason  the  flowers  are  not  fertilized  and  the  bloom  falls  quickly, 
leaving  bare  stems,  cut  at  once  for  hay.  Even  after  the  seed  is 
formed,  if  excessive  rains  come  and  a  second  growth  starts,  cut 
the  crop  and  remove  it,  because  it  will  fail  to  ripen  seed  evenly 
and  is  almost  certain  to  be  an  unprofitable  crop,  and  the  sooner 
it  can  be  taken  from  the  ground  the  sooner  another  crop  may 
start  and  mature. 

When  to  Harvest  for  Seed. — The  harvesting  depends  a  little 
upon  the  evenness  of  blooming  and  the  weather  conditions  during 
the  period  of  maturing.  In  a  fe.vorable  season,  with  even  bloom- 
ing and  even  maturing  of  the  seed,  the  rule  is  to  harvest  the 
alfalfa  when  a  large  proportion  of  the  pods  have  turned  brown. 
In  the  average  season,  as  the  alfalfa  matures,  part  of  the  seed  will 
be  ripe  while  some  of  the  seed  is  overripe  and  shattering  and 
some  is  yet  immature.  With  such  a  crop  it  is  necessary  to 
strike  an  average  and  harvest  when  the  largest  amount  of  plump, 
sound  seed  may  be  saved. 

The   opinions   of  farmers  vary   widely   regarding  the   proper 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  437 

stage  of  maturity  at  which  to  harvest  alfalfa.  While  the  major- 
ity prefer  to  harvest  when  most  of  the  seed  is  ripe  and  when  two- 
thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  pods  are  brown,  others  recommend 
to  harvest  when  one-half  of  the  pods  are  brown.  One  grower 
harvests  the  crop  when  one-third  of  the  pods  are  black.  One 
grower  harvests  the  crop  when  one-third  of  the  pods  are  black, 
one-third  brown,  and  one-third  green;  others  harvest  as  soon  as 
the  ripest  seed  begins  to  shatter,  while  still  others  maintain  that 
the  first  seed  that  ripens  is  the  best  and  prefer  to  cut  a  little 
early,  claiming  that  the  seed  will  be  of  as  good  quality  and  that 
there  is  less  loss  from  shattering  in  handling  and  less  danger  of 
damage  by  unfavorable  weather. 

Mature  alfalfa  seed  has  a  clear,  light-golden  color;  immature 
seed  has  more  of  a  greenish  tinge  and  may  be  shrunken;  but  if 
the  crop  is  not  harvested  until  the  seed  is  fully  ripe  the  pods  drop 
off,  the  seed  shells  easily,  and  the  crop  is  hard  to  handle  without 
great  loss,  even  if  it  escapes  unfavorable  weather  after  harvest. 
On  the  whole,  it  seems  to  the  writer  safest  to  cut  the  crop  a  little 
green  rather  than  to  risk  loss  in  ways  mentioned.  The  greenish- 
colored  seed,  if  not  too  shrunken,  is  good  vital  seed  and  ger- 
minates well. 

Methods  of  Harvesting. — A  crude  method  is  to  cut  with  a  mower 
and  rake  into  windrows  the  same  as  hay.  Handled  in  this  way 
much  seed  may  be  wasted.  If  the  alfalfa  is  mowed  in  the  morn- 
ing, when  the  dew  is  on,  and  raked  immediately,  there  is  much 
less  shattering  of  seed.  If  cut  during  the  heat  of  the  day,  to  pre- 
vent the  shelling  and  waste  of  seed  men  should  follow  the  machine 
with  forks,  moving  the  cut  alfalfa  out  of  the  way  of  the  team  and 
the  machine.  When  provided  with  a  buncher  or  windrower  at- 
tachment, the  mower  does  better  work  and  may  be  economically 
used.  There  is  some  objection  to  leaving  the  alfalfa  in  loose 
bunches  or  in  open  windrows,  and  unless  the  weather  is  very 
favorable  and  the  purpose  is  to  thrash  at  once,  it  is  best  to  follow 
the  mower  closely,  placing  the  alfalfa  in  larger  piles  or  cocks, 
about  what  a  man  may  lift  at  one  forkful,  thus  avoiding  pulling 
the  bunches  apart  in  loading,  which  would  cause  the  pods  to 
break  off  and  the  seed  to  shatter.  Also  if  the  alfalfa  is  placed  at 
once  in  the  cock  in  this  way,  the  seed  is  prevented  from  bleach- 
ing so  much  and  the  straw  settles  and  sheds  rain  and  is  pre- 
served and  cured  better  than  when  left  in  the  loose  bunch  or 
windrow,  and  well-cured  alfalfa  straw  is  said  to  have  one-half 
the  feeding  value  of  alfalfa  hay. 

The  self-rake  reaper  is  in  common  use,  and  is  an  excellent  ma- 
chine with  which  to  harvest  the  alfalfa-seed  crop.  The  gavels  are 


438  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

dropped  from  the  platform  out  of  the  way  of  the  horses  and  the 
machine.  Usually  men  follow  with  forks  and  lay  three  or  four 
gavels  in  a  pile.  These  bunches  shed  rain  and  preserve  the  seed 
and  straw  in  better  condition  than  the  single  gavels,  and  the  seed 
does  not  shatter  so  badly  in  handling  the  larger  compact  bunches 
as  in  handling  the  smaller  ones. 

Some  few  growers  cut  the  crop  with  a  header,  leaving  the  al- 
falfa in  windrows  across  the  field.  This  method  is  only  satis- 
factory in  a  dry  season,  when  the  alfalfa  is  thrashed  or  stacked 
at  once,  as  soon  after  harvest  as  possible. 

Many  western  growers  harvest  alfalfa  with  a  binder.  The  usual 
practice  has  been  to  remove  the  binder  part,  but  leave  the  pack- 
ers on  and  throw  the  bundles  out  loose,  dropping  in  bunches  by 
use  of  the  bundle-carrier,  or  bunching  with  the  fork  as  already 
described  in  the  use  of  the  self-rake  reaper.  In  recent  years, 
however,  some  prefer  to  bind  the  alfalfa  in  bundles  and  shock  the 
same  as  wheat  or  other  grain.  The  advantage  claimed  for  this 
method  is  that  it  requires  less  help,  since  one  man  may  do  the 
harvesting  and  put  the  crop  into  the  shock  if  help  is  scarce;  the 
alfalfa  may  be  cut  a  little  greener,  the  seed  does  not  shatter  so 
readily,  and  the  straw  may  cure  and  keep  better  than  when  put 
up  loose. 

When  bound  and  shocked  the  alfalfa  should  stand  a  couple  of 
weeks,  until  dry  enough  to  thrash.  If  put  into  the  stack,  thrash- 
ermen  prefer  to  have  it  loose,  as  bundles  are  more  apt  to  be  damp 
and  tough,  but  if  fully  dried  when  stacked  alfalfa  should  keep  well 
in  the  bundle.  It  is  suggested  to  stack  with  layers  of  straw  be- 
tween layers  of  alfalfa,  in  order  to  take  up  the  moisture. 

Stacking  and  Thrashing. — The  common  practice,  when  it  can  be 
done,  is  to  thrash  from  the  field  as  soon  after  harvest  as  the  seed 
is  dry  and  the  straw  fully  cured.  If  a  machine  cannot  be  secured 
and  weather  conditions  are  favorable  for  stacking,  better  put  into 
the  stack  at  once  when  the  crop  is  cured  than  to  run  the  risk  of 
damage  by  wet  weather.  A  single  rain  will  not  injure  the  alfalfa 
much  if  it  is  well  bunched  or  cocked,  but  continued  wet  weather 
causes  the  seeds  to  swell  and  perhaps  sprout,  and  when  the  pods 
dry  they  burst,  scattering  the  seed.  Some  growers  estimate  that, 
half  of  the  seed  is  lost  in  this  way  by  a  few  days  of  unfavorable 
weather.  Also,  if  the  crop  is  allowed  to  lie  in  the  field  for  a  long 
time  there  is  more  or  less  loss  of  seed  from  the  effects  of  heavy 
dew  and  damage  from  mice  and  insects,  and  the  longer  the  alfalfa 
lies  the  easier  the  pods  break  off  and  the  seed  shatters  when  it 
is  finally  handled  and  stacked  or  thrashed.  The  largest  amount 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  439 

and  best  quality  of  seed  may  be  secured  by  stacking  or  thrashing 
the  crop  as  soon  after  cutting  as  it  is  in  fit  condition. 

Care  should  be  taken  not  to  stack  or  thrash  when  the  straw  is 
too  green  or  tough  and  the  seed  not  fully  dry.  It  requires  even 
more  time  to  cure  properly  the  seed  crop  of  alfalfa  than  it  does  to 
cure  the  hay  crop;  the  stems  are  largely  stripped  of  leaves  and 
cure  slowly  and  pack  closely  in  the  stack.  If  stacked  green,  the 
alfalfa  is  sure  to  heat  and  thus  injure  or  destroy  the  vitality  of 
the  seed.  Also  if  thrashed  green  or  damp  much  seed  will  be  lost, 
since  it  will  not  hull  properly,  and  if  damp  seed  is  stored  in  bulk 
it  may  heat  and  spoil.  To  cure  the  alfalfa  fit  to  stack,  from  three 
to  seven  days  of  favorable  weather  are  required,  and  a  longer 
period  if  it  is  thrashed  from  the  field.  When  bound  and  shocked 
the  crop  should  have  a  couple  of  weeks  of  drying  weather  to  cure 
before  stacking  or  thrashing.  It  is  safest  to  put  into  narrow 
stacks,  and  it  is  also  a  good  plan  to  mix  with  layers  of  dry  straw, 
especially  if  the  alfalfa  is  bound  and  there  is  any  indication  that 
the  straw  is  damp  or  green  in  the  middle  of  the  bundles.  The 
straw  improves  the  ventilation  of  the  stack  and  absorbs  the  ex- 
cessive moisture.  The  practice  of  using  straw  in  this  way,  how- 
ever, is  seldom  practicable — better  stack  only  when  fully  cured. 

To  prevent  loss  of  seed  in  stacking  or  thrashing,  racks  are 
sometimes  covered  with  canvas  and  canvas  is  spread  under  the 
machine  or  along  the  stack  in  order  to  catch  the  shattered  seed 
and  the  bolls  which  break  off;  also  care  must  be  taken  to  handle 
the  alfalfa  carefully  in  pitching  and  loading.  Large  growers  of 
alfalfa  often  stack  the  seed  crop  in  the  field  with  the  sweep-rake 
and  hay-stacker.  Those  who  practice  this  method  usually  cut  with 
the  mower  and  leave  in  bunches  or  windrows,  drying  the  alfalfa 
quickly  and  stacking  as  soon  as  possible.  This  is  a  rough  way  to 
handle  the  crop  and  occasions  more  or  less  loss  of  the  seed,  but 
where  a  large  area  is  handled  it  may  be  more  profitable  to  handle 
the  crop  in  this  way  than  by  a  slower  method  and  run  the  risk 
of  damage  from  wet  weather.  When  the  alfalfa  is  left  in  gavels 
or  bundles,  as  thrown  off  by  the  harvester,  it  should  be  taken  up 
with  a  barley  fork.  There  will  be  less  shattering  of  seed,  how- 
ever, if  the  alfalfa  is  in  small  compact  bunches,  not  too  heavy  to 
be  lifted  in  one  forkful. 

When  the  alfalfa  is  stacked,  unless  thrashed  within  two  or 
three  days  after  stacking,  it  should  be  allowed  to  pass  through 
the  sweat  before  being  thrashed,  which  requires  several  weeks  or 
months.  The  best  plan  is  to  cover  the  stacks  well  to  prevent  dam- 
age by  rain,  and  thrash  late  in  the  fall  when  the  weather  is  dry 
and  cool.  In  order  to  secure  seed  for  fall  sowing  it  is  often  desir- 


440  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

able  to  thrash  from  the  field,  and  in  a  favorable  climate  or  season, 
if  a  machine  can  be  secured,  this  is  the  safest  and  most  econom- 
ical method  of  handling  the  crop. 

Farmers  differ  in  their  opinions  as  to  whether  it  is  preferable 
to  thrash  with  a  huller  or  with  a  common  grain  separator  pro- 
vided with  a  huller  attachment.  Some  growers  favor  the  use  of 
the  latter  machine  because  the  work  can  be  done  more  rapidly.  As 
a  rule,  however,  when  farmers  have  had  a  chance  to  use  both 
kinds  of  machines,  and  have  compared  their  work,  the  huller  is 
preferred.  Although  it  takes  longer  to  thrash  with  a  good  huller, 
yet  with  a  good  crop  enough  more  seed  may  be  secured  to  amply 
pay  for  the  extra  time  and  expense  required;  in  fact,  the  owner 
of  a  huller  will  often  pay  something  for  the  privilege  of  thrash- 
ing over  again  the  straw-stacks  left  by  the  common  thrasher. 
Among  the  machines  used,  the  Birdsell  huller  is  well  recom- 
mended; also  the  Advance  thrashing  separator  with  huller  at- 
tachment has  received  favorable  mention.  One  farmer  who  has 
used  both  machines  prefers  the  Advance  thrasher  to  the  huller. 

Storing  and  Marketing  the  Seed. — A  good  method  is  to  sack 
the  seed  and  store  in  a  dry  place  which  may  be  kept  free  from 
mice  and  rats.  It  is  stated  by  some  growers,  however,  that  mice 
and  rats  will  not  touch  alfalfa  seed  when  they  have  free  access 
to  other  grain. 

The  seed  should  be  cleaned  with  a  good  fanning-mill  before 
selling,  and  all  light  seed,  dirt  and  weed  seed  removed  as  far  as 
possible.  This  extra  work  is  usually  well  paid  for  in  the  better 
price  received  for  clean  seed.  If  the  alfalfa  is  green  or  damp 
when  thrashed,  the  seed  had  best  be  spread  twelve  or  eighteen 
inches  deep  on  a  tight  floor  in  a  dry  place  and  shoveled  over  once 
or  twice  to  dry  before  it  is  cleaned  and  sacked.  Prime  alfalfa 
seed  should  have  a  bright,  clear,  light-golden  or  slightly  greenish 
color.  Seed  which  has  been  wet  or  bleached  in  the  field  will  be 
darker  in  color,  while  heated  seed  will  have  a  brownish  dead 
color,  indicating  its  lack  of  vitality. 

From  the  grower's  standpoint,  the  best  time  to  sell  the  seed  is 
when  the  price  is  highest.  Prime  seed  usually  sells  at  a  high 
price  early  in  the  fall,  when  there  is  apt  to  be  a  shortage  of  seed 
for  fall  sowing,  and  again  early  in  the  spring,  about  March  1, 
seed  often  brings  the  highest  price,  depending  largely  upon  the 
supply  and  demand.  Alfalfa  seed  retains  its  vitality  for  several 
years  if  carefully  stored  and  saved,  and  it  may  often  be  to  the 
interest  of  the  grower,  when  seed  is  plentiful  and  the  price  low, 
to  hold  the  seed  for  a  better  market. 

Aside  from  its  use  for  sowing,  alfalfa  seed  has  a  standard  mar- 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  441 

ket  value  in  Europe  for  dyeing  purposes,  being  used  in  the  print- 
ing of  cotton  fabrics,  and  large  quantities  of  seed  have  been  ex- 
ported from  this  country  to  supply  the  foreign  demand.  For  dif- 
ferent years  and  in  different  parts  of  the  country  the  price  has 
ranged  from  seven  to  fifteen  cents  per  pound.  A  bushel  of  alfalfa 
seed  weighs  sixty  pounds.  Three  to  four  bushels  of  good  seed  per 
acre  is  a  profitable  crop.  The  average  crop  in  the  more  favored 
alfalfa  regions  ranges  from  five  to  seven  bushels  per  acre,  while 
yields  as  high  as  twelve  bushels  per  acre  have  been  reported.  A 
yield  of  less  than  two  bushels  per  acre  is  an  unprofitable  crop. 

Importance  of  Good  Seed. — An  immense  amount 
of  failure  with  alfalfa  comes  through  getting  bad 
seed.  There  are  various  causes  of  bad  seed.  Some- 
times it  is  grown  in  the  wrong  latitude  and  thus  fails. 
Some  alfalfa  seed  is  grown  in  Algeria  and  is  ex- 
ported through  France.  It  is  improbable  that  this 
Algerian  seed  would  succeed  in  Ohio  or  Illinois  or 
Nebraska.  Thus  in  imported  seed  it  is  hard  to  tell 
what  one  will  get.  Some  French  seed  is  very  supe- 
rior and  well  adapted  to  eastern  America. 

Adulterations. — The  worst  of  seed,  however,  is 
that  containing  the  weeds  and  adulterations  one 
often  gets.  For  instance,  one  day  recently  I  visited 
a  newly  established  alfalfa  field  situated  in  a  region 
where  alfalfa  is  a  new  plant,  struggling  to  get  rec- 
ognition. To  my  astonishment  the  young  growth 
proved  to  be  nearly  every  bit  burr  clover.  Burr 
clover  seed  is  always  cheaper  than  alfalfa  seed,  and 
the  enterprising  seedsman  had  adulterated  his  al- 
falfa seed  so  vigorously  that  there  was  only  a  rem- 
nant of  alfalfa  left.  I  have  seen  fields  so  nearly  a 
pure  stand  of  yellow  trefoil  that  the  stray  alfalfa 
plants  looked  like  weeds. 


442  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Examine  Samples. — It  is  safe  to  get  samples  of 
alfalfa  seed  before  buying  and  submit  them  to  your 
experiment  station  for  examination,  or  to  the  De- 
partment of  Agriculture  at  Washington,  choosing 
the  seedsman  according  to  the  quality  of  his  seeds. 
There  are  many  honest  seedsmen,  but  perhaps  few 
competent  or  sufficiently  careful  seedsmen. 

Edgar  Brown  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry 
Department  of  Agriculture,  has  made  careful  study 
of  imported  and  home-grown  alfalfa  seeds  and  thus 
presents  the  case  in  Farmers'  Bulletin  194: 

Alfalfa  seed  is  about  the  size  of  the  seed  of  red  clover,  but  is 
easily  distinguished  from  it  by  its  uniform  light  olive-green 
color,  as  contrasted  with  the  purple  and  yellow  of  clover  seed. 
Unlike  red  clover,  it  varies  considerably  in  shape. 

Adulteration. — Alfalfa  seed  is  often  adulterated;  numerous  sam- 
ples have  recently  been  received  at  the  seed  laboratory  for  exam- 
ination which  contain  a  considerable  percentage  of  yellow  trefoil 
seed.  A  few  samples  have  also  been  received  which  contain  burr 
clover. 

Yellow  Trefoil. — The  seed  which  is  most  used  in  this  country  as 
an  adulterant  of  alfalfa  is  yellow  trefoil.  It  is  darker  green  than 
alfalfa,  so  that  a  sample  containing  from  10  to  40  per  cent  of  it 
looks  brighter  and  better  at  the  first  glance  than  slightly  discolored 
alfalfa  seed.  Yellow  trefoil  seed,  however,  can  be  easily  dis- 
tinguished by  an  expert,  on  examination,  through  a  small  lens, 
by  the  differences  in  shape.  Figure  2  shows  the  typical  form  of 
yellow  trefoil  seed. 

Yellow  trefoil  is  a  low-spreading,  leguminous  plant  grown  for 
sheep  pasture  on  some  of  the  poor,  light  soils  of  Europe  where 
other  forage  crops  do  not  grow.  It  is  not  grown  to  any  extent 
in  the  United  States  and  is  of  no  value  where  clover  or  alfalfa 
is  successful. 

Importation  of  Yellow  Trefoil  Seed. — On  account  of  the  low 
price  of  yellow  trefoil  seed  and  its  resemblance  to  alfalfa  and  red 
clover  it  is  imported  into  this  country  in  considerable  quantities 
and  used  as  an  adulterant  of  both  these  seeds.  During  the  six 
months  from  June  30  to  December  31,  1903,  110,760  pounds  of  yel- 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  443 

low  trefoil  were  imported  and  practically  all  was  used  to  adul- 
terate alfalfa  and  red  clover  seed. 

Chilean  Lucern. — Under  the  name  of  Chilean  lucern,  or  luzerne, 
burr  clover  is  used  as  an  adulterant  »f  alfalfa  seed  in  Germany 
and  has  recently  been  found  in  seed  offered  for  sale  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  obtained  from  the  woolen  factories  in  Germany 
which  use  Chilean  wool.  Burr  clover  grows  abundantly  in  Chile, 
and  the  burrs  catch  in  the  wool  as  the  sheep  are  pasturing.  In 
the  process  of  combing  the  wool  the  burrs  are  removed,  and  the 
seed  is  afterwards  cleaned  and  put  on  the  market  to  be  used 
as  an  adulterant  of  alfalfa  seed. 

This  seed  is  similar  to  that  of  alfalfa  in  shape,  and  though 
slightly  larger  and  lighter  in  color,  it  lends  itself  most  readily  to 
use  an  an  adulterant.  There  are  two  species  occurring  in  about 
equal  quantities,  which  are  apparently  the  ones  common  on  the 
Pacific  coast  of  the  United  States  (Medicago  arabica  and  Medicago 
dentlculata) . 

Color  of  Dead  Seed. — A  mixture  of  dead  seed  can  easily  be  de- 
tected by  the  color.  Fresh  seed  which  will  grow  is  light  olive- 
green  and  when  rubbed  in  the  hands  gives  a  bright,  glossy  sur- 
face. Whenever  alfalfa  seed  is  any  shade  of  brown  it  will  not 
grow  and  is  worthless.  If  a  sample  contains  any  considerable 
percentage  of  discolored  seed  it  should  not  be  accepted. 

Weed  Seeds. — The  best  grades  of  alfalfa  seed  contain  com- 
paratively few  weed  seeds.  The  low  grades,  however,  which  are 
mostly  screenings,  often  carry  large  numbers  of  weed  seeds. 
Dodder  is  the  weed  most  destructive  to  the  alfalfa  plant.  It  is 
a  parasite  having  no  leaves  and  appears  as  a  tangled  mass  of  fine 
yellow  stems  winding  about  and  clinging  to  other  plants.  The 
seed  germinates  in  the  ground  and  sends  up  a  slender  stem  that 
winds  around  the  alfalfa  plant  to  which  it  attaches  itself.  The 
dodder  root  soon  dies,  while  the  stems  continue  to  grow  and 
thrive  on  the  juices  of  the  alfalfa  until  it  has  matured  seed  or 
the  alfalfa  has  been  killed. 

Dodder  occurs  over  most  of  the  area  where  alfalfa  is  grown, 
except  in  the  extreme  northern  states.  When  once  established  ft 
is  very  destructive  and  difficult  to  get  rid  of.  The  only  effectual 
way  to  combat  it  is  to  mow  the  infested  area  and  burn  the  cut- 
ting. There  are  two  species  which  are  about  equally  common 
and  destructive  to  alfalfa  and  red  clover.  The  seeds  of  these 
are  of  nearly  the  same  size  and  are  not  easily  distinguished. 
The  larger  dodder  seeds  approach  the  smaller  alfalfa  seeds  in 
size  and  therefore  are  difficult  to  clean  out  thoroughly.  In  buy- 
ing alfalfa  seed  it  is  essential  to  know  that  it  is  free  from  dodder. 


444  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

Cost  of  High-Grade  and  Low-Grade  Seed. — It  is  usually  safe  to 
assume ,  that  the  highest  grade  and  consequently  the  highest- 
priced  seed  offered  by  any  one  firm  is  the  cheapest  to  buy.  In 
the  high  grades  of  alfalfa  the  seed  that  will  grow  costs  less  per 
pound  than  that  in  the  low  grades.  When  samples  from  different 
firms  are  to  be  compared  a  careful  estimate  of  the  quality  of  each 
should  be  made  and  the  best  quality  selected.  A  good  grade  of 
alfalfa  should  contain  not  over  2  per  cent  of  impurities,  and 
from  90  to  95  per  cent  of  the  seed  should  grow. 

Home  Testing. — It  is  difficult  for  one  who  is  not  accustomed  to 
handling  alfalfa  seed  to  determine  accurately  its  percentage  of 
purity,  especially  the  amount  of  dodder  and  other  weed  seeds 
present,  but  a  general  estimate  of  the  quality  of  unadulterated 
seed  can  be  formed  on  a  basis  of  color.  The  percentage  of  seed 
that  will  grow  can  easily  be  determined  by  means  of  a  simple 
tester. 

Mix  the  seed  thoroughly  and  count  out  100  or  200  seeds  just  as 
they  come,  making  no  selection.  Put  them  between  a  fold  of  cot- 
ton flannel  or  some  similar  cloth,  taking  care  not  to  let  the  seeds 
touch  one  another.  Lay  the  cloth  on  a  plate,  moisten  it  well, 
but  do  not  saturate  it,  cover  with  another  plate  and  keep  at  a 
temperature  of  about  70°  F.  Every  day  count  and  take  out  the 
sprouted  seeds.  In  from  four  to  six  days  all  of  the  good  seeds 
will  have  sprouted,  and  the  percentage  of  seed  that  will  grow 
is  known. 

Free  Tests. — The  seed  laboratory  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  is  prepared  without  charge  to  make  tests 
of  alfalfa  seed  and  of  other  seeds,  both  for  germination  and 
for  mechanical  purity.  The  test  for  mechanical  purity  consists 
in  determining  the  percentage  of  pure  seed  and  of  weed  seeds, 
including  dodder.  All  samples  sent  for  testing  should  be  addressed 
to  the  Seed  Laboratory,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C.,  and  should  be  accompanied  as  far  as  possible  by 
the  following  information :  Name  and  address  of  seller,  year  and 
place  of  growth,  price  paid,  and  name  and  address  of  sender. 

Summary. — The  average  quality  of  alfalfa  seed  on  the  market 
is  frequently  low. 

A  considerable  quantity  of  adulterated  and  dead  seed  is  being 
offered  for  sale. 

Do  not  buy  alfalfa  seed  that  is  adulterated  or  that  is  browD  in 
color. 

Do  not  buy  alfalfa  seed  containing  the  seeds  of  dodder. 

Get  samples  and  test  them,  or  have  them  tested,  in  all  cases 
before  buying, 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  445 

Seed  Growing  in  the  Semi-Arid  West. — Within 
recent  years  there  has  been  a  remarkable  migration 
of  people  from  the  older  states  to  the  semi-arid  re- 
gions of  the  West.  They  have  gone  there  under  the 
belief  that  the  climate  has  changed  and  that  from 
now  on  there  will  be  enough  rainfall  for  crop-grow- 
ing with  the  usual  grains  and  farm  crops.  Many 
hope  to  do  these  things  by  the  practice  of  dry  farm- 
ing methods,  of  intensive  culture  and  moisture  con- 
servation. 

I  am  most  unwilling  to  dampen  any  man/s  en- 
thusiasm or  lessen  his  faith  in  his  chosen  habitat, 
yet  I  can  not  help  but  remember  that  I  have  seen 
the  same  thing  attempted  at  least  once  before,  and 
the  climate  then  did  not  stay  changed,  but  perversely 
became  dry  again,  aridity  resuming  its  ancient  sway. 
Yet  I  remember  in  my  own  desert  home,  in  a  region 
too  dry  to  attempt  any  farming  at  all  except  irriga- 
tion farming,  stray  alfalfa  plants  grew  and  bloomed 
and  made  great  wealth  of  seed.  In  fact  I  had  a  scat- 
tered row  of  alfalfa  plants  30  miles  long  beside  the 
trail  to  the  ranch,  where  a  sack  borne  on  a  burro's 
back  had  leaked  a  tiny  stream  as  the  animal  jogged 
its  slow  way  across  the  desert  trail.  Only  here  and 
there  a  plant  grew  and  survived,  but  those  that  got 
rooted  lived  along,  year  after  year,  bloomed  and 
made  seed.  I  often  thought  then,  near  30  years  ago, 
that  the  desert  could  do  one  thing  well,  if  nothing 
more :  it  could  grow  alfalfa  seed. 

Every  bit  of  the  semi-arid  West,  from  the  limit  of 


446  ALFALFA   FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

profitable  corn  production  to  the  edge  of  the  sage 
brush,  and  even  beyond  this  a  little  way,  can  with 
right  management  produce  alfalfa  seed.  And  this 
alfalfa  seed  growing  may  pay  as  well  as  good  grain 
crops  will  pay  in  more  rainy  lands.  I  am  fortunate 
in  having  at  command  a  careful  study  of  this  whole 
subject  by  two  master  minds,  Charles  J.  Brand  and 
J.  M.  Westgate,  of  the  Bureau  of  Plant  Industry, 
Department  of  Agriculture,  which  is  submitted : 

The  growing  of  alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows  for  seed  is  of  more 
recent  origin  in  this  country  than  is  the  production  of  hay  by 
this  method.  John  Spurrier,  in  a  book  entitled  "The  Practical 
Farmer,"  published  at  Wilmington,  Del.,  in  1793,  appears  to  be 
the  first  American  writer  to  mention  the  growing  of  alfalfa  in 
cultivated  rows.  The  cultivation  was  designed  to  retard  the  de- 
velopment of  weeds,  which  often  prove  very  destructive  to  the 
broadcasted  seedings  of  alfalfa  in  the  Middle  and  South  Atlantic 
States.  This  method  is  still  practiced  to  a  slight  extent  in  a 
few  places  in  the  South,  where,  however,  the  climate  is  too 
humid  for  the  successful  production  of  alfalfa  seed. 

In  England  as  early  as  1730,  Jethro  Tull,  the  inventor  of  the 
drill  and  the  originator  of  tillage  of  farm  crops  in  the  modern 
sense,  advocated  and  practiced  the  growing  of  alfalfa  (lucern)  in 
rows.  His  teachings  first  appeared  in  his  "Specimens."  Later, 
in  1829,  these  were  republished  by  Cobbett  in  a  work  entitled 
"Tull's  Horse-Hoeing  Husbandry." 

What  was  apparently  the  first  attempt  to  grow  alfalfa  for 
seed  in  cultivated  rows  in  this  country  was  made  by  what  was 
then  known  as  the  Section  of  Seed  and  Plant  Introduction  of  the 
United  States  Department  of  Agriculture.  Several  contract  fields 
of  Turkestan  alfalfa  were  seeded  in  wide  rows  in  different  parts 
of  the  Great  Plains  area  in  1903.  The  poor  seeding  habits  of 
Turkestan  alfalfa  when  grown  in  this  country,  together  with  the 
fact  that  the  plants  were  grown  much  too  thickly  in  the  rows, 
greatly  handicapped  the  logical  development  of  this  method. 

The  application  of  the  row  method  of  cultivation  has  been 
suggested  by  a  number  of  American  experimenters,  including 
Prof.  W.  J.  Spillman,  Prof.  W.  M.  Hays,  Prof.  W.  A.  Wheeler, 
Mr.  W.  M.  Jardine  and  Mr.  C.  S.  Scofield.  Of  these  only  Prof> 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.        447 

Wheeler  has  used  the  method  on  an  experimental  and  field  scale 
and  his  results  are  confirmatory  to  those  presented  in  this  paper. 

The  work  on  which  the  conclusions  here  presented  are  based 
has  been  conducted  at  various  experiment  farms  of  this  bureau 
and  on  the  farms  of  Lewis  Brott,  Sextorp,  Neb.;  E.  Bartholo- 
mew, Stockton,  and  Dr.  W.  A.  Workman,  Ashland,  Kan. 

Row  cultivation  for  seed  growing  has  been  in  use  for  a  num- 
ber of  years  in  the  vineyard  regions  of  southern  Germany,  par- 
ticularly in  Baden  and  Bavaria,  in  the  production  of  seed  of 
Alt-Deutsche  Frankische  luzerne,  a  well-recognized  German 
strain.  It  is  said  that  alfalfa  is  grown  in  cultivated  rows  for 
seed  in  parts  of  Russia,  where  hand  cultivators  prove  an  ef- 
fective and  practical  means  of  holding  the  weeds  in  check  and 
of  conserving  soil  moisture. 

The  method  has  been  employed  for  a  number  of  years  by  Dr. 
L.  Trabut,  government  botanist  of  Algeria.  Fairchild  describes 
a  method  of  growing  wheat  between  alfalfa  rows  in  Algeria 
under  light  rainfall,  where  it  has  been  found  possible  to  pro- 
duce a  crop  of  wheat  between  the  wide  rows  of  alfalfa  in  alter- 
nate years.  The  practical  value  of  this  method  for  the  semi- 
arid  portions  of  the  United  States  was  indicated  in  the  publica- 
tion mentioned,  without,  however,  making  any  direct  reference 
to  the  seed-producing  possibilities  of  alfalfa  sown  in  cultivated 
rows  under  such  conditions. 

Principles  of  Seed  Production. — Although  alfalfa  has  been 
grown  increasingly  in  the  West  since  1854  or  1855  little  has 
been  done  to  develop  a  rational  seed  industry.  It  is  a  matter 
of  common  observation  that  even  in  recognized  seed-producing 
sections  the  seed  crop  is  very  uncertain.  A  study  of  some  of 
the  factors  that  cause  success  or  failure  has  indicated  some  of 
the  underlying  principles  affecting  the  production  of  profitable 
seed  crops.  In  Bulletin  118  of  this  bureau  attention  was  directed 
to  the  fact  that  cultivated  alfalfa  is  not  a  homogeneous  species, 
but  is  composed  of  numerous  races,  strains,  varieties,  and  even 
sub-species.  These  vary  greatly  in  many  characters,  and  espe- 
cially in  their  seed-producing  capacity,  no  pure  varieties  of 
known  high  value  comparable  with  those  we  have  of  corn,  wheat, 
and  other  crops  having  as  yet  been  established.  It  has  also 
been  noted  that  the  individuals  constituting  these  diverse  races, 
elementary  species,  or  whatever  they  may  be  called,  exhibit  great 
variation  among  themselves.  This  is  particularly  true  of  their 
ability  to  set  seed.  To  overcome  the  source  of  error  resulting 
from  this  diversity  in  individual  plants  the  method  of  vegetative 
propagation  described  by  Westgate  and  Oliver,  of  the  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry,  has  been  used  in  a  portion  of  this  work. 


448  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

It  has  often  been  noted  that  as  a  rule  isolated  alfalfa  plants 
set  seed  far  more  profusely  than  those  in  all  but  the  thinnest 
stands.  Observations  on  this  point  have  been  made  in  various 
parts  of  the  Great  Plains  and  intermountain  areas  and  in  the 
farther  Southwest.  On  the  Arlington  Experimental  Farm,  near 
Washington,  D.  C.,  an  experiment  was  performed  to  determine 
the  effect  of  different  degrees  of  isolation  on  the  seed-setting 
ability  of  alfalfa.  In  this  experiment,  cuttings  from  a  heavy- 
seeding  plant  were  rooted  in  the  greenhouse-  and  later  set  out 
at  varying  intervals.  Inasmuch  as  these  plants  were  propagated 
vegetatively  from  the  same  mother  plant,  they  did  not  show  the 
individual  variation  mentioned  above  that  would  have  entered  into 
the  experiment  had  seedling  plants  been  utilized. 

The  plants  occupying  a  space  equivalent  to  a  7-inch  square  pro- 
duced a  maximum  of  38  pods,  while  those  having  at  their  com- 
mand a  space  equal  to  an  11-inch  square  produced  a  maximum  of 
96  pods.  The  highest  number  of  pods  formed  on  plants  grown  in 
rows  39  inches  apart  and  18  inches  apart  in  the  rows  was  505. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  yields  were  in  almost  direct  proportion 
to  the  areas  occupied.  However,  it  was  evident  that  the  plants 
having  the  greatest  distance  between  them  had  not  utilized  fully 
their  allotted  space.  This  was  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  it 
was  their  first  season's  growth.  An  adjoining  two-year-old  cutting 
from  another  plant  of  similar  seed-producing  tendencies  produced 
2,080  pods,  and  this  without  utilizing  all  of  the  space  of  18  inches 
in  the  39-inch  row  assigned  to  it.  Although  part  of  this  difference 
may  have  been  due  to  inherent  capacity,  the  chief  explanation  for 
it  must  be  sought  in  the  firm  establishment  of  the  plant  and  its 
greater  maturity. 

Just  why  the  isolation  of  plants  increases  the  production  of  seed 
has  not  been  fully  determined,  but  it  is  apparent  that  one  of  the 
factors  involved  is  the  increased  amount  of  sunlight  available  to 
the  plant.  It  has  often  been  observed  that  trees  grown  on  the 
banks  of  irrigation  ditches  in  alfalfa  fields  or  along  the  margins 
of  fields  always  interfere  with  normal  seed  production  as  far  as 
the  influence  of  their  shade  extends.  In  the  course  of  an  experi- 
ment on  the  seed  setting  of  alfalfa  it  was  found  that  partial  shad- 
ing materially  reduced  the  quantity  of  seed  produced  by  plants 
not  already  receiving  more  than  the  optimum  amount  of  sunlight. 

When  alfalfa  plants  have  sufficient  space  for  full  development 
they  have  approximately  equal  illumination  on  all  sides.  With 
the  plants  so  far  apart  that  when  fully  developed  they  barely 
occupy  the  ground  the  potential  seed-producing  surface  exposed 
on  an  acre  is  nearly  double  that  of  a  thick  stand.  In  the  latter, 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  449 

because  of  crowding,  the  plants  are  unable  to  produce  seed,  ap- 
parently on  account  of  shading  by  closely  associated  individuals. 

In  addition  to  the  injurious  influence  of  shade,  the  crowding 
of  plants  interferes  with  seed  production  by  depriving  the  plants 
of  sufficient  moisture  to  enable  them  to  mature  their  seed  properly. 
This,  of  course,  is  true  only  in  areas  of  light  rainfall.  On  the 
other  hand,  in  sections  where  irrigation  is  practiced  thick  stands 
by  checking  evaporation  bring  about  such  moist  conditions  in 
fields  as  to  promote  unfavorable  conditions  and  so  prevent  maxi- 
mum yields  of  seed. 

The  basal  shoots  which  usually  appear  when  the  plant  begins  to 
bloom  are  developed  at  the  expense  of  the  seed  crop.  The  energy 
that  should  be  devoted  solely  to  the  maturing  of  the  seed  is  di- 
verted by  this  new  growth.  Perhaps  the  most  important  factor 
influencing  the  development  of  these  basal  shoots  which  are  to 
form  the  succeeding  crop  is  the  water  content  of  the  soil.  If  the 
moisture  supply  be  ample,  the  basal  shoots  commence  their  growth 
about  the  time  the  plant  comes  into  bloom.  This  is  disastrous  to 
the  seed  crop,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  necessary  that  there  be  a 
sufficient  shortage  of  moisture  at  this  time  to  retard  or  prevent 
altogether  the  development  of  these  shoots.  In  the  seed-produc- 
ing sections  of  the  more  humid  parts  of  the  Great  Plains  area 
profitable  crops  of  alfalfa  seed  are  usually  obtained  only  in  the 
occasional  seasons  of  drought  so  extreme  that  the  yield  of  other 
crops  is  greatly  reduced. 

Drought  is  used  here  in  a  qualified  sense.  There  must  of  course 
be  enough  moisture  in  the  soil  to  enable  the  seed  to  mature  fully; 
otherwise  it  will  be  deficient  in  germinating  power.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  soil  must  not  contain  enough  moisture  to  force  into 
growth  the  crown  buds  that  produce  the  succeeding  crop. 

The  favorable  conditions  for  the  production  of  alfalfa  seed 
which  prevail  in  the  semi-arid  regions  are  due  principally  to  the 
presence  there  of  a  favorable  adjustment  of  the  supply  of  moist- 
ure in  the  soil  to  the  moisture  requirements  of  the  plant  when 
grown  for  seed.  This  is  especially  true  when  the  plants  are  grown 
in  cultivated  rows,  as  the  moisture  content  of  the  soil  can  then 
be  regulated  to  some  degree  by  proper  cultivation. 

Insects  and  the  Setting  of  Seed. — Insect  visits  are  essential  to 
the  proper  pollination  of  the  alfalfa  flower.  If  fertile  seed  is  to 
be  produced  in  any  quantity  it  is  necessary  that  a  certain  ex- 
plosive mechanism  within  the  flower  be  released.  The  release  of 
this  mechanism,  whether  it  be  accomplished  by  insects  or  other- 
wise, is  popularly  called  tripping. 

Exneriments  and  observations  both  by  the  writers  and  by  other 


450  ALFALFA    FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

investigators  indicate  that  practically  no  seed  is  produced  if  the 
flowers  are  not  tripped.  Bumblebees  (Bom'bus  spp.)  are  gener- 
ally believed  to  be  the  most  efficient  of  all  insects  in  setting  off 
the  explosive  mechanism,  and  hence  in  bringing  about  pollination. 
Honeybees,  though  not  nearly  so  effective  as  bumblebees,  should 
not  be  underrated  in  this  connection.  It  is  a  practice  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  to  place  beehives  along  the  margins  of  al- 
falfa fields  intended  for  seed.  Beekeepers  follow  with  their  col- 
onies fields  planted  for  seed,  for  the  purpose  of  getting  tne  honey. 
This  is  mutually  beneficial,  as  larger  yields  of  both  seed  and  honey 
result.  Wild  bees  (Andrena  spp.  and  Megachile  spp.)  and  various 
butterflies  are  also  valuable  agents  in  pollinating  alfalfa  flowers. 

That  the  explosion  of  alfalfa  flowers  may  be  accomplished  by 
other  means  than  insect  visitation  is  quite  well  known.  The  in- 
sertion of  a  more  or  less  pointed  instrument  into  the  throat  of  the 
corolla  has  often  been  resorted  to  in  studying  the  tripping 
mechanism  of  individual  flowers.  Roberts  and  Freeman  describe 
a  method  of  exploding  flowers  in  large  numbers  by  rolling  the 
head  carefully  but  firmly  between  the  thumb  and  the  first  and 
second  fingers.  This  trips  the  flowers  then  at  the  proper  stage 
of  maturity.  Tripping  on  a  still  more  wholesale  scale  may  be 
done  by  grasping  the  entire  plant  between  the  hands  at  successive 
intervals.  In  this  case  it  is  best  to  work  from  the  bottom  toward 
the  top  of  the  plant,  exerting  the  required  pressure  at  the  proper 
intervals. 

It  has  been  found  that  flowers  tripped  by  any  form  of  manip- 
ulation set  seed  readily,  while  other  flowers  left  unexploded  and 
from  which  insects  are  excluded  rarely  set  seed. 

As  only  a  slight  pressure  on  the  keel  is  necessary  to  trip  the 
flower  artificial  methods  may  be  resorted  to  as  a  means  of  sup- 
plementing the  natural  process  as  accomplished  by  insects.  In 
an  experiment  at  the  Arlington  experimental  farm  in  which  the 
method  mentioned  of  exerting  pressure  successively  over  the  whole 
plant  was  used,  the  yield  of  pods  was  increased  25^  per  cent 
over  adjoining  rows  not  thus  treated.  At  Chico,  Cal.,  an  increase 
of  129  per  cent  in  the  number  of  pods  resulted.  Although  greater 
seed  yields  also  result,  two  experiments  at  least  indicate  that  the 
increase  in  the  number  of  seeds  is  not  in  as  high  proportion  as  is 
the  increase  in  the  number  of  pods. 

Further  experiments  and  more  exact  observations  under  vary- 
ing conditions  in  different  sections  will  be  necessary  to  deter- 
mine just  when  sufficiently  increased  yields  of  seed  may  be  ex- 
pected to  justify  the  expense  of  the  undertaking.  Any  alfalfa  seed 
producer  may  test  this  method  experimentally  on  a  small  scale. 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  451 

A  hundred  plants  may  be  counted  off  and  tripped  by  hand  three 
times  a  week  during  the  blooming  period,  using  either  of  the 
methods  previously  described.  Another  hundred  plants  of  similar 
seeding  habits  should  be  left  to  be  exploded  by  insects.  Any 
greater  production  of  seed  on  a  given  number  of  heads  on  the 
manipulated  plants  as  compared  with  the  same  number  of  heads 
on  those  not  so  manipulated  may  with  reasonable  safety  be  at- 
tributed to  artificial  tripping. 

If  the  increased  yields  which  have  been  obtained  in  the  pre- 
liminary experiments  are  equaled  in  seed-producing  sections,  it  is 
probable  that  means  will  be  devised  for  exploding  the  flowers  on 
a  large  scale.  The  only  sections  in  which  this  method  will  be 
likely  to  prove  profitable  are  those  where  for  any  reason  proper 
insects  are  not  present  in  sufficient  numbers  to  explode  a  large 
percentage  of  the  flowers. 

Areas  Adapted  for  Seed. — The  experiments  thus  far  carried  out 
in  the  production  of  seed  in  cultivated  rows  have  been  located 
principally  in  the  semi-arid  portions  of  the  Great  Plains,  in  the 
intermountain  area,  and  in  the  Palouse  country  of  eastern  Wash- 
ington. It  is  probable  that  the  method  will  be  found  to  be 
adapted  to  many  of  the  semi-arid  sections  of  the  country  which 
have  a  rainfall  of  from  14  to  20  inches,  and  possibly  also  ta  irri- 
gated sections  where  the  supply  of  water  is  insufficient  for  the 
production  of  full  hay  crops.  It  is  also  recommended  for  trial 
in  irrigated  sections  having  water  for  but  half  or  less  of  the  nor- 
mal acreage  of  alfalfa  in  the  district,  and'  also  for  fields  lying 
slightly  higher  than  the  ditch  lines,  but  which  have  the  water 
level  moderately  near  the  surface. 

Experiments  in  humid  sections  indicate  that  even  there  row 
cultivation  makes  possible  much  higher  yields  of  seed  than  are 
produced  by  fields  sown  broadcast  or  drilled  in  the  ordinary 
manner.  It  is  doubtful,  however,  whether  even  this  method  will 
insure  the  production  of  paying  crops  of  alfalfa  seed  under  humid 
conditions. 

Row  cultivation  under  conditions  of  ample  rainfall  is  more 
valuable  as  a  method  of  weed  control  than  for  increasing  seed 
yields.  At  the  time  when  pod  formation  is  going  on,  a  certain 
amount  of  dr,y  weather  and  heat  is  necessary  to  insure  the  great- 
est production  of  alfalfa  seed,  even  when  the  plants  are  isolated. 
This  method  promises  to  be  more  successful  in  sections  where  the 
annual  rainfall  is  from  14  to  20  inches  than  elsewhere.  Where 
the  precipitation  ranges  from  20  to  25  inches  thin  seeding  by 
broadcasting  or  drilling  in  the  ordinary  way  may  be  preferable 
to  row  cultivation.  Fields  sown  by  either  of  these  methods  can 


452  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

be  kept  up  at  much  less  expense.  Less  frequent  cultivation  will 
be  necessary,  and  when  needed  may  be  given  with  an  alfalfa  ren- 
ovator or  a  disk,  straight-tcothed,  or  slant-toothed  harrow.  Under 
these  methods,  as  in  row  cultivation,  the  stand  must  be  very  thin 
if  the  best  results  are  to  be  obtained. 

Selection  of  Soil. — In  the  semi-arid  sections  the  ordinary  arable 
land,  such  as  is  used  for  the  common  farm  crops,  will  prove  well 
adapted  to  this  work  so  far  as  fertility  is  concerned.  Inasmuch 
as  the  chief  purpose  of  cultivation  is  moisture  conservation,  soils 
of  large  moisture-holding  capacity  should  be  used  when  there  is 
opportunity  for  choice.  Care  should  be  taken  to  avoid  fields  too 
alkaline  for  ordinary  crops. 

Location  of  Fields. — In  many  parts  of  the  semi-arid  sections 
alfalfa  fields  are  located  in  swales  or  draws  -or  on  -creek  bottoms 
where  the  moisture  conditions  are  the  best  that  are  available. 
Where  the  rainfall  is  very  light  it  will  be  safest  to  utilize  such 
places  for  growing  alfalfa  in  rows  for  seed.  Where  the  precipita- 
tion is  greater  or  the  run-off  which  the  field  secures  from  the 
surrounding  area  is  sufficient,  alfalfa  fields,  for  either  seed  or 
hay,  may  be  sown  thinly  either  broadcast  or  with  the  drill,  thus 
obviating  a  large  part  of  the  expense  of  cultivation.  It  may  be 
safely  assumed  that  alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows  will  succeed  under 
somewhat  drier  conditions  than  fields  grown  by  ordinary  methods. 
In  those  parts  of  the  semi-arid  sections  where  the  rainfall  is  rela- 
tively heavy  it  is  probable  that  even  the  highest  and  driest  por- 
tions of  the  farm  may  be  successfully  utilized  by  the  row  method. 

Preparation  of  the  Seed  Bed. — The  preparation  of  the  ground 
should  be  such  as  to  rid  it  as  far  as  possible  of  weeds  and  at  the 
same  time  to  provide  a  seed  bed  which  has  become  well  firmed 
by  settling  or  rolling,  or  both.  In  the  drier  portions  of  the  semi- 
arid  regions  summer-fallowing  the  preceding  season  may  be  neces- 
sary to  provide  the  soil  with  the  moisture  required  to  insure 
prompt  germination  of  the  seed.  This  implies  keeping  the  field 
in  the  cleanest  possible  culture  during  the  previous  summer. 
Weeds  must  be  controlled  and  proper  tillage  must  be  given  after 
each  rain.  The  soil  mulch  thus  maintained  will  check  evapora- 
tion and  in  the  following  year  place  at  the  disposal  of  the  young 
plants  the  greater  part  of  two  years'  rainfall. 

In  the  North,  where  spring  planting  is  advisable,  surface  tillage 
must  be  continued  until  seeding  time.  In  many  cases  it  will  not 
be  necessary  to  summer-fallow  if  the  field  is  devoted  to  a  culti- 
vated crop,  such  as  corn,  during  the  preceding  year. 

In  the  Great  Plains  country,  when  the  ground  is  plowed,  im- 
mediate harrowing  and  rolling  should  follow  the  plowing.  In 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  453 

addition,  sub-surface  packing  is  advised  for  all  spring-plowed  land, 
but  may  often  be  omitted  in  the  case  of  fall  plowing,  as  natural 
settling  supplemented  by  harrowing  and  rolling  usually  pro- 
duces a  sufficiently  firm  seed  bed.  If  firming  is  not  done  there 
will  be  at  the  bottom  of  the  new  furrow  a  dry,  porous  stratum 
of  the  old  topsoil.  This  condition,  which  is  present  in  all  freshly 
plowed  fields  where  the  surface  is  dry,  may  result  fatally  to  the 
young  alfalfa  plants,  as  their  roots  can  not  make  the  necessary 
development  in  this  layer,  containing  dry  soil,  clods,  and  air 
spaces.  If  the  field  is  not  to  be  left  fallow  long  enough  for 
harrowing  and  natural  settling  to  make  the  ground  sufficiently 
firm  below,  this  injurious  condition  should  be  remedied  by  sub- 
surface packing  with  suitable  implements.  It  is  necessary  that 
there  be  sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  at  seeding  time  to  enable 
the  plant  to  make  a  sufficiently  rapid  growth  to  permit  of  surface 
tillage  without  covering  up  the  young  plants. 

The  purpose  of  subsurface  packing  is  not  to  prevent  loss  of 
moisture,  but  to  re-establish  the  capillary  column  which  was  in- 
terrupted by  the  plowing  under  of  the  dry  topsoil.  Unless  this 
is  done  the  moisture  from  the  lower  soil  can  not  reach  the  roots 
of  the  plant.  Immediate  harrowing  also  prevents  considerable 
loss  of  moisture  from  the  new  topsoil. 

In  regions  where  the  greater  part  of  the  annual  rainfall  comes 
during  the  winter  and  where  the  ground  does  not  freeze  to  a 
great  depth  or  remain  frozen  for  a  long  period,  as  is  the  case  in 
a  large  part  of  the  intermountain  area  and  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  Great  Plains,  it  may  be  undesirable  to  level  and  firm  im- 
mediately after  plowing,  as  is  indicated  for  the  middle  and  north- 
ern Great  Plains  region.  This  applies  only  to  fall-plowed  land. 
The  reason  for  this  is  obvious,  as  both  these  operations  may  work 
against  the  conservation  of  the  winter  precipitation  by  preventing 
penetration  and  promoting  run-off.  Rough  plowed  land  under 
the  conditions  described  holds  a  large  portion  of  the  moisture  due 
to  rain  or  melted  snow  and  gives  it  an  opportunity  to  soak  in 
after  each  thaw.  Spring-plowed  fields  in  the  intermountain  area 
and  southern  Great  Plains  should  be  given  the  treatment  previ- 
ously indicated  for  similar  fields  in  the  colder  portions  of  the 
Great  Plains. 

A  promising  method  of  securing  the  desired  seed  bed,  developed 
by  Dr.  W.  .1.  Workman,  of  Ashland,  Kan.,  has  been  found  to 
give  satisfactory  results  on  buffalo-grass  sod.  The  principal  diffi- 
culty in  the  growing  of  alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows  for  seed  is  the 
weediness  of  the  ground  during  the  first  season  after  seeding.  Tnis 
is  avoided  by  the  utilization  of  sod  land.  A  16-inch  sod  plow  is 


454  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

used  to  cut  a  furrow  21/£  inches  deep  through  the  sod,  a  stirring 
plow  following  immediately  in  the  furrow  left  by  the  breaking 
plow  and  leaving  a  furrow  about  8  inches  deep.  On  the  next 
round  the  breaking  plow  puts  the  strip  of  sod  in  the  bottom  of  the 
deep  preceding  furrow,  where  it  is  completely  covered  by  the  new 
soil  turned  up  by  the  stirring  plow.  The  harrow  is  kept  at  work 
to  smooth  and  firm  the  ground  as  fast  as  it  is  turned,  and  the 
alfalfa  is  seeded  with  the  grain  drill  while  the  soil  is  still  moist. 

Prevention  of  the  Drifting  of  Soil. — If  the  ground  is  so  sandy 
as  to  be  in  danger  of  drifting  or  blowing  during  high  winds,  it  is 
the  best  practice  to  seed  alternate  rows  of  oats  or  barley  and  to 
make  these  rows. run  at  right  angles  to  the  direction  of  the  pre- 
vailing winds.  The  first  cultivation  of  the  alfalfa  plants  will 
destroy  this  grain  nurse  crop,  which  should  in  no  event  be  left 
long  enough  to  injure  the  young  alfalfa  plants. 

Another  method  of  avoiding  the  danger  of  blowing  out  or 
drifting  in  a  sandy  soil  is  to  sow  the  alfalfa  with  a  walking 
garden  drill  between  corn  or  sorghum  rows  after  the  last  cul- 
tivation. This  method  has  been  tried  with  success  under  irriga- 
tion on  the  experiment  farm  conducted  by  the  Office  of  Western 
Agricultural  Extension  near  Fallon,  Nev.  In  attempting  to  use 
the  method  under  dry-farming  conditions  careful  attention  must 
be  given  to  the  supply  of  moisture  available  for  both  plants,  and 
as  it  has  not  yet  been  put  into  actual  practice  in  the  semi-arid 
sections  it  should  first  be  tested  on  a  small  scale. 

A  third  method  has  been  suggested  by  Dr.  H.  L.  Shantz,  of 
the  Office  of  Alkali  and  Drought  Resistant  Plant  Breeding  In- 
vestigations, Bureau  of  Plant  Industry,  which  may  prove  useful 
when  sod  land  is  used.  This  method  consists  of  leaving  narrow 
strips  of  virgin  sod  at  suitable  intervals  through  the  fields  at 
right  angles  to  the  prevailing  direction  of  the  most  destructive 
winds. 

A  method  applicable  especially  to  old  fields  which  show  a  ten- 
dency to  blow  during  high  winds  has  been  suggested  by  N. 
Schmitz,  of  the  Office  of  Forage  Crop  Investigations,  Bureau  of 
Plant  Industry.  This  method  calls  for  the  seeding  of  the  al- 
falfa in  shallow  listed  furrows  running  at  right  angles  to  the 
direction  of  the  prevailing  heavy  winds.  It  is  necessary  that 
these  furrows  be  shallow,  or  heavy  rains  which  sometimes  occur 
may  bury  the  seedling  plants.  If  the  planting  does  not  take  place 
at  the  time  of  listing  or  if  the  planting  attachment  to  the  lister 
can  not  be  adapted  to  this  work,  a  corn  drill  or  check-row  planter 
may  be  used  by  making  the  necessary  alterations  in  the  plates. 
This  method  of  listing  may  also  prove  efficient  in  catching  the 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  455 

snow  during  the  winter  preceding  the  planting.  Spring  harrow- 
ing will  level  the  ridges  if  they  are  too  high  at  planting  time. 
Choice  of  Seed. — Other  things  being  equal,  seed  from  plants 
grown  without  irrigation  should  be  used  in  preference  to  any 
other.  The  relatively  small  quantity  required  when  this  method 
is  used  justifies  increased  precaution  and  expense  to  obtain  the 
best  seed  available.  Some  few  strains  of  Turkestan  alfalfa 
have  given  better  yields  of  hay  than  the  ordinary  kind  under 
semi-arid  conditions.  However,  none  of  them  have  shown  satis- 
factory seed-producing  capacity.  Special  dry-land  strains  of  al- 
falfa that  have  been  developed  through  unconscious  selection  in 
some  of  the  older  dry-farming  centers  of  the  West  practically  al- 
ways exceed  in  seed  production  the  Turkestan  and  all  other 
forms  of  alfalfa  thus  far  introduced.  Whenever  these  kinds  can 
be  secured  they  should  be  preferred  by  the  farmer.  Seed  from 
the  drier  parts  of  western  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  from  the  dry 
farms  of  Cache  Valley,  and  from  the  Levan  Ridge  near  Nephi, 
Tjtah,  will  probably  produce  the  most  satisfactory  results. 

Method  of  Seeding  in  Rows. — Several  methods  have  been  used 
in  experiments,  but  the  best  results  have  been  obtained  by  sowing 
seed  in  rows  about  3  feet  apart.  The  distance  between  rows 
should  be  governed  by  the  moisture  supply  that  can  be  counted 
on  and  by  the  width  of  the  machinery  available  for  use  in  cul- 
tivating. If  seeding  is  done  with  an  ordinary  grain  drill  with 
shoes  8  inches  apart,  the  stopping  up  of  4  out  of  every  5  holes 
will  make  the  rows  40  inches  apart.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  3  out 
of  every  4  holes  are  stopped  up,  the  rows  will  be  32  inches 
apart.  The  wider  distance  is  recommended,  especially  in  sections 
where  the  rainfall  is  very  scant. 

Another  method  which  has  given  good  results,  especially  in 
hay  growing,  and  which  may  often  prove  useful  where  it  is  pro- 
posed to  use  the  same  field  for  both  hay  and  seed  production,  is 
that  of  sowing  double  instead  of  single  rows.  This  can  be  ac- 
complished by  leaving  2  holes  open  and  stopping  up  3  or  4 
holes  across  the  drill.  The  double  rows  will  then  be  8  inches 
apart,  while  the  space  left  for  intertillage  will  be  32  or  40  inches 
wide.  Experiments  with  this  method  which  have  been  under 
way  for  two  seasons  on  the  San  Antonio  Experiment  Farm  of  the 
Office  of  Western  Agricultural  Extension  indicate  that  this  method 
will  be  useful  under  some  conditions.  It  has  also  been  used  with 
success  under  Prof.  Wheeler's  direction  on  the  state  substation 
farm  at  Highmore,  S.  D. 

Any  good  garden  drill  will  give  satisfactory  results.  If  suoh 
an  implement  is  >  not  available  it  may  be  found  advisable  to  pro- 
cure one  for  use  in  this  work. 


456  ALFALFA  FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

An  ordinary  corn  drill  such  as  is  used  in  drilling  corn  in  listed 
furrows  can  be  used  by  babbitting  up  the  holes  in  the  corn  plate 
and  drilling  new  ones  of  proper  size  to  drop  about  15  alfalfa 
seeds.  If  a  blank  plate  is  at  hand,  holes  may  be  drilled  into  that 
large  enough  to  drop  from  10  to  20  seeds.  The  germination  value 
of  the  seed  and  all  factors  that  tend  to  lessen  the  ultimate  num- 
ber of  plants  must  be  considered  in  determining  how  thickly  to 
seed.  The  holes  should  be  close  enough  to  drop  seeds  at  intervals 
of  from  8  to  12  inches. 

Lewis  Brott,  a  pioneer  dry-land  alfalfa  seed  producer  in  western 
Nebraska,  has  had  successful  results  by  using  an  onion  seed 
plate  in  a  corn  drill. 

Rate  of  Seeding  and  Thickness  of  Stand. — In  mature  stands 
of  alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows  the  plants  should  average  about  1 
foot  apart  in  the  row.  To  insure  this,  it  is  necessary  that  the 
plants  be  much  thicker  at  first,  as  their  mortality  under  dry 
conditions  is  very  high.  Satisfactory  results  have  been  secured 
by  seeding  the  alfalfa  with  an  ordinary  grain  drill  so  set  that  it 
would  sow  12  pounds  of  seed  per  acre  with  all  the  holes  in  opera- 
tion. With  4  out  of  every  5  holes  stopped  up,  approximately 
2  2-5  pounds  of  seed  to  the  acre  will  be  sown. 

The  stand  in  a  cultivated  row  need  be  no  thicker  even  at  first 
than  that  of  the  rows  in  ordinary  drilled  fields,  though  the  rows 
of  the  latter  are  usually  only  about  8  inches  apart.  Where  the 
conditions  are  not  favorable,  it  is  usually  best  to  seed  more 
thickly  at  first  than  is  necessary  and  to  thin  out  the  plants  subse- 
quently to  the  desired  stand.  As  much  as  7  pounds  of  seed  to 
the  acre  have  been  sown  in  36-inch  rows  without  producing  too 
thick  a  stand  for  satisfactory  results  during  the  first  season. 
This  rate  of  seeding  is  equivalent  to  30  pounds  per  acre  drilled  in 
the  usual  way  under  conditions  of  sufficient  moisture  with  the 
rows  8  inches  apart. 

If  difficulty  is  experienced  in  making  the  drill  feed  slowly 
enough,  it  may  be  overcome  for  the  most  part  by  mixing  corn 
chop  with  the  alfalfa  seed  or  by  reducing  the  feed  in  the  grain 
drill  with  strips  of  leather. 

Millet  or  other  seed  of  similar  size  may  be  rendered  ungermina- 
ble  by  heating  thoroughly  in  an  oven  for  several  hours  and  then 
mixed  with  the  alfalfa  seed  to  aid  in  securing  any  desired  rate 
of  seeding.  Sawdust  and  dry  soil  are  also  frequently  used  for 
this  purpose. 

It  is  a  very  good  plan  to  test  the  drill  first  on  bare  soil  with 
the  shoes  not  touching  the  ground.  In  this  way  it  is  possible  to 
observe  the  rate  at  which  the  seed  is  being  dropped,  and  thus  a 
proper  regulation  of  the  seeding  can  be  secured.  There  should 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  457 

be  an  average  of  from  4  to  10  plants  to  the  running  foot.  It  has 
been  too  often  the  case  that  the  stand  in  the  row  has  been  too 
thick  for  the  best  development  of  the  individual  plants.  In  such 
instances  cross-harrowing  after  a  majority  of  the  plants  have 
become  well  established  will  be  found  to  be  very  effective  in  thin- 
ning out  the  stand. 

Seeding  in  Check  Rows  to  Permit  Gross-Cultivation. — Limited 
experiments  with  seeding  in  check  rows  indicate  that  with  heavy 
seed-producing  plants  of  satisfactory  character  very  good  yields 
of  seed  may  be  secured  with  hills  30  inches  apart  in  the  row. 
This  distance  permits  of  cross-cultivation,  but  is  rather  narrow 
for  most  cultivating  machinery.  The  plants  being  thus  isolated  on 
all  sides,  the  production  of  a  maximum  seed  crop  is  possible. 
No  practical  means  have  yet  been  devised  for  seeding  alfalfa  in 
check  rows  on  a  large  scale.  It  is  probable  that  an  ordinary 
check-row  corn  planter  can  be  adapted  to  this  work.  It  would 
be  necessary  to  babbitt  up  the  holes  in  the  plate  and  then  rim 
them  out  to  drop  10  to  20  seeds  in  a  place.  The  surviving  plants 
can  later  on  be  thinned  to  the  best  plant  in  the  hill.  It  is  possi- 
ble that  alfalfa  seeded  in  rows  with  a  wheat  drill  could  be 
thinned  out  to  practically  uniform  distances  by  cross-cultivation 
with  an  ordinary  corn  plow  run  at  right  angles  to  the  rows.  The 
plants,  with  the  exception  of  a  few  midway  between  the  two  sets 
of  shovels,  would  thus  be  destroyed. 

Time  of  Heeding. — Early  spring  seeding  will  usually  yield  the 
best  results,  as  more  favorable  moisture  conditions  for  the 
germination  and  growth  of  the  young  plants  are  present  at  this 
time.  However,  if  the  soil  can  be  brought  into  proper  condition  of 
tilth  and  moisture  content,  seeding  can  take  place  during  the  late 
summer  if  the  danger  of  winterkilling  is  not  too  great.  In  a 
climate  of  moderate  severity  if  a  6-inch  growth  is  made  during 
the  fall  the  plants  will  probably  go  through  the  winter  safely, 
and  will  start  out  the  following  spring  in  much  better  condition 
to  compete  with  the  weeds  than  will  spring-seeded  plants.  In 
semi-arid  regions  it  is  usually  impracticable,  however,  to  seed 
alfalfa  in  late  summer  or  early  fall  owing  to  the  lack  of  moisture 
necessary  to  insure  prompt  germination. 

In  the  Dakotas  and  Montana,  June  seeding  will  probably  give 
the  best  results.  If  seeding  is  deferred  until  early  summer  and 
the  soil  is  harrowed  or  otherwise  treated  to  keep  it  in  proper 
tilth,  most  of  the  weed  seeds  near  the  surface  will  germinate. 
The  last  cultivation  given  the  land  before  the  alfalfa  is  sown 
kills  this  young  growth,  thus  greatly  reducing  the  trouble  with 
weeds  during  the  first  season. 

Treatment   of   the   Stand   the  First   Season. — The   well-settled 


458  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

moist  seed  bed  necessary  for  the  growth  of  alfalfa  furnishes  ideal 
conditions  for  the  rapid  development  of  weeds.  Several  cultiva- 
tions are  necessary  to  hold  even  those  of  the  first  season  in 
check.  A  2-row  cultivator  provided  with  narrow  shovels  is  the 
most  practicable  machine  for  this  work.  Fenders,  or,  better,  a 
box  sled,  should  be  provided  to  avoid  the  danger  of  covering  up 
the  young  alfalfa  plants,  and  care  should  be  taken  to  ridge  up  the 
rows  as  little  as  possible,  as  this  will  interfere  with  mowing  op- 
erations. After  the  stand  has  become  firmly  established  ridging 
can  be  readily  corrected  by  cross-harrowing.  Mr.  Bartholomew 
has  devised  a  harrow  of  adjustable  width  which  is  very  useful 
both  in  controlling  weeds  and  keeping  up  the  necessary  surface 
mulch. 

The  stand  may  be  much  thicker  during  the  first  season  than  in 
subsequent  seasons.  Some  of  the  plants  will  be  destroyed  by  cul- 
tivation, and  the  less  drought  resistant  and  less  hardy  plants 
will  be  killed  by  the  dryness  of  the  summer  and  the  cold  of  the  first 
winter.  Unless  plants  are  so  thick  as  to  crowd  one  another  no 
thinning  should  be  done  by  cross-harrowing  while  the  plants  are 
still  small. 

Experiments  in  eastern  Colorado,  eastern  Washington  and  Cali- 
fornia indicate  that  under  very  dry  conditions  the  plants  should 
not  be  clipped  the  first  season  if  they  are  to  make  their  greatest 
individual  development.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  Willamette 
Valley  of  Oregon  it  has  been  found  necessary  to  clip  during  the 
first  season.  In  any  event,  clipping,  if  undertaken  at  all,  should 
be  with  the  sickle  bar  of  the  mower  set  high,  and  probably  should 
not  be  resorted  to  unless  it  is  found  impossible  to  hold  the 
weeds  in  check  by  the  ordinary  cultivations.  As  there  is  still 
some  uncertainty  regarding  clipping  the  first  season,  it  is  sug- 
gested that  farmers  leave  a  portion  of  the  field  undipped  to  dem- 
onstrate the  best  practice  under  various  conditions.  Should  the 
plants  begin  to  set  seed,  clipping  will  be  advisable.  In  cases 
where  it  is  practicable,  hand  weeding  or  hoeing  may  be  used  to 
supplement  horse  cultivation. 

Treatment  of  the  Stand  After  the  First  Season. — The  treatment 
of  the  stand  during  subsequent  seasons  will  differ  very  little  from 
that  of  the  first  season.  The  plants  should  average  not  more 
than  four  to  the  foot.  In  the  spring  or  early  summer  of  the 
second  season,  if  the  natural  methods  of  thinning  out  have  not 
been  severe  enough,  it  will  be  necessary  to  harrow  crosswise 
lightly  to  accomplish  a  further  reduction  in  thickness  of  stand. 
It  may  also  be  worth  while  to  go  over  the  rows  with  a  hoe  as 
soon  as  the  plants  commence  to  set  seed,  cutting  out  undesirable 
individuals.  This  operation  will  involve  considerable  time  and 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  459 

expense.  However,  as  there  is  such  great  variation  in  the  value 
of  different  plants,  this  procedure  may  be  justified  at  least  until 
strains  of  known  high  value  for  the  conditions  at  hand  have  been 
selected  and  propagated  for  use  on  a  field  scale. 

Row-sown  alfalfa  fields  that  have  not  been  properly  thinned 
will  not  give  maximum  seed  yields  on  account  of  the  various  in- 
jurious effects  of  crowding,  which  have  already  been  discussed. 

If  it  is  impracticable  to  reduce  the  stand  by  hoeing  or  by  use 
of  the  ordinary  harrow  it  may  be  done  by  cross-disking  with  a 
disk  harrow.  The  disks  should  be  so  adjusted  as  to  cut  out  the 
proper  number  of  plants,  which  will  depend,  of  course,  upon  their 
original  thickness  in  the  rows. 

The  Right  Crop  to  Leave  for  Seed. — Experiments  at  Stockton, 
Kan.,  show  clearly  that  at  that  place  no  crop  later  than  the  second 
will  yield  returns  that  will  be  at  all  satisfactory.  Retarded 
growth  during  the  dry  part  of  the  summer  defers  ripening  until 
so  late  in  the  season  that  cold  nights  prevent  the  maturing  of  the 
seed.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  first  spring  growth  is  devoted  to 
seed  production  the  flowers  are  likely  to  become  overmature  be- 
fore the  best  season  for  seed  development  arrives.  Frequently 
also,  largely  on  account  of  the  variation  in  location  of  the  zero 
point  of  growth  in  the  different  individuals  composing  any  strain, 
the  first  spring  growth  matures  very  unevenly. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  recommended,  especially  for  the  Great 
Plains  and  the  cooler  parts  of  the  intermountain  area,  that  the 
first  growth  of  the  second  and  subsequent  years  be  clipped  so 
early  that  the  time  of  seed  setting  will  fall  in  midsummer  or 
slightly  later,  when  favorablfe  conditions  are  likely  to  obtain. 

The  problem  as  to  what  crop  should  be  left  for  seed  under  the 
varying  conditions  of  different  areas  has  not  yet  been  fully 
worked  out.  It  may  be  well  for  seed  growers  to  try  by  simple  ex- 
periments along  this  line  to  get  definite  information  on  this 
point.  One  row  may  be  given  an  early  clipping  and  then  left  to 
go  to  seed;  another  a  later  clipping,  while  still  another  may  be 
left  for  seed  after  the  first  crop  has  been  cut  for  hay,  and  so  on. 
The  temperature  and  moisture  requirements  will  largely  deter- 
mine the  best  practice  in  this  regard,  but  the  necessary  presence 
of  suitable  insects  must  not  be  overlooked. 

Harvesting  the  Seed  Crop. — The  harvesting  of  alfalfa  seed 
grown  in  cultivated  rows  does  not  differ  materially  from  that  in 
broadcasted  fields.  With  the  rows  3  feet  apart  a  mowing  ma- 
chine with  a  6-foot  cutter  bar  is  necessary  if  two  rows  are  to  be 
cut  in  each  swath.  This  arrangement  does  away  with  the  neces- 
sity of  having  an  extra  man  to  remove  the  newly  cut  bunches 
from  the  path  of  the  mower  at  the  next  round.  A  mower  with  a 


460  ALFALFA  FARMING    IN   AMERICA. 

5-foot  cut  has  been  found  to  be  too  short  to  be  satisfactory  in 
cutting  two  rows  at  once. 

It  is  probable  that  a  center-cut  mower  with  one  horse  attached 
at  each  end  of  the  cutter  bar  will  prove  better  adapted  than  even 
the  6-foot  side-draft  machine. 

In  planning  to  sow  alfalfa  for  seed  in  cultivated  rows  the 
farmer  should  make  his  plans  from  the  very  beginning  with  a 
view  to  using  to  the  best  advantage  the  available  machinery.  In 
adapting  the  grain  drill  to  secure  the  proper  distance  between 
rows,  the  mower  with  which  the  cutting  is  to  be  done  must  be 
kept  in  mind,  as  well  as  the  cultivators  that  are  to  be  used  in 
controlling  the  weeds  and  keeping  up  the  dust  mulch. 

Thrashing  may  be  done  either  from  the  field  or  from  the  stack. 
The  latter  method  is  probably  the  better,  as  curing  in  the  stack 
seems  to  improve  the  quality  of  the  seed.  The  haste  necessary  in 
order  to  keep  the  machines  busy  when  thrashing  is  done  from 
the  field  results  inconsiderable  waste.  Whichever  method  is  em- 
ployed in  handling  the  seed  crop,  it  is  necessary  that  a  tight- 
bottomed  rack  be  used  or  there  will  be  much  loss  of  seed.  Such 
a  bottom  can  be  secured  by  the  use  of  matched  flooring  or  by 
spreading  canvas  or  a  tarpaulin  over  the  bottom  of  an  ordinary 
open  rack. 

Thrashing  may  be  done  in  any  one  of  three  ways — the  regular 
alfalfa  huller,  an  ordinary  grain  separator  supplied  with  a  hulling 
attachment,  or  a  grain  separator  fitted  out  with  alfalfa  sieves 
may  be  used.  The  last  has  been  found  to  give  very  satisfactory 
results.  Failure  to  appreciate  the  fact  that  the  ordinary  thrash- 
ing machine  can  be  adapted  to  the  thrashing  of  alfalfa  has  re- 
sulted in  the  loss  of  the  seed  crop  on  many  fields  in  sections  where 
seed  production  is  not  often  attempted  or,  if  attempted,  is  suc- 
cessful only  in  abnormal  years  or  where  it  is  carried  on  inci- 
dentally to  other  farming  industries.  In  using  the  ordinary 
thrasher  it  is  recommended  that  the  concaves  be  inverted  in  addi- 
tion to  inserting  the  special  clover  or  alfalfa  sieves. 

Possibilities  of  Seed  Production  in  Cultivated  Rows. — Too  much 
must  not  be  expected  from  the  method  of  growing  alfalfa  de- 
scribed in  these  pages.  There  are  large  areas  in  and  around  the 
regions  to  which  this  method  is  adapted  where  no  amount  of  cul- 
tivation and  isolation  of  the  plants  will  bring  success.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  are  thousands  of  acres  now  lying  idle  which 
with  intelligent  management  will  yield  profitable  crops.  Maxi- 
mum or  bumper  crops  must  not  be  expected  under  the  prevailing 
conditions. 

The  results  obtained  in  the  experiments  thus  far  conducted  with 
this  metnod  indicate  that  it  gives  especial  promise  in  Utah,  in 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED. 


461 


eastern  Colorado,  and  in  the  western  portions  of  Kansas,  Nebraska 
and  South  Dakota.  Yields  of  seed  at  the  rate  of  5  bushels  to  the 
acre  have  been  obtained.  The  possibilities  of  the  method  when 
only  individual  plants  of  large  seeding  capacity  are  used  is  indi- 
cated by  the  fact  that  plants  removed  30  inches  each  way  from 
other  plants  have  given  yields  which  if  equalled  by  an  acre  of 
such  plants  at  the  same  distance  apart  would  rival  the  seed  yield 
produced  un-der  the  most  favorable  conditions  in  the  present  seed- 
growing  sections. 

The  method  is  a  comparatively  new  one  and  should  be  tested  on 
its  own  merits  in  each  area  or  even  in  each  community.  Where 
reasonable  doubt  as  to  its  success  under  given  conditions  of  rain- 
fall exists,  growers  should  at  first  devote  only  a  small  area,  say 
2  to  5  acres,  to  row  cultivation,  increasing  the  size  of  the  field  if 
the  results  justify  it. 

Seed  production  under  the  best  conditions  is  somewhat  uncer- 
tain. The  certainty  of  profitable  yields  of  hay  in  most  alfalfa- 
growing  sections  deters  many  farmers  from  letting  their  fields 
stand  for  seed.  The  light  yield  of  hay  procurable  under  ordi- 
nary conditions  in  the  semi-arid  regions  makes  the  growing  of 
seed  a  more  promising  undertaking  than  in  sections  where  hay 
production  is  very  profitable.  It  is  probable  that  under  very  dry 
conditions  the  yield  of  hay  in  cultivated  rows  will  also  exceed 
that  of  a  broad-casted  stand.  Complete  data  are  not  yet  at 
nand,  but  calculated  yields  per  acre  based  on  the  weight  from  a 
typical  rod  length  of  row  are  given  in  the  accompanying  table: 


VARIETY. 

Green 
weight  of 
hay. 

Dry 

weight  of 
hay. 

Weight  of 
seed. 

Dry-land  alfalfa  (Brott's)  

2,672  Ibs. 

1,154  Ibs. 

167  Ibs. 

Commercial  sand  lucern  (S.  P.  I.  No.  20451)  
Turkestan  alfalfa  (S.  P.  1.  No  18751).  ... 

3,463  Ibs. 
2,141  Ibs. 

1,359  Ibs. 
908  Ibs. 

143  Ibs. 
62  Ibs. 

The  yields  of  hay  given  in  this  table  are  from  one  cutting  ob* 
tained  on  an  upland  field  near  Potter,  Neb.,  sixteen  months  after 
seeding.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  at  Kimball,  the  nearest  point 
for  which  precipitation  records  are  available,  is  about  14  inches. 
In  both  1905  and  1906  this  mean  was  exceeded  considerably,  but 
in  1907  the  total  was  15  inches,  while  up  to  the  end  of  September, 
1908,  the  record  showed  13.85  inches.  Lewis  Brott,  on  whose  farm 
this  experiment  is  under  way,  secured  150  bushels  of  seed  from  a 
thinly  sown,  broad-casted  field  of  50  acres  in  1906.  This  yield  was 
obtained  from  an  old  stand. 

Developing  Valuable  Strains  for  Seed  Production. — Experiments 


462  ALFALFA   FARMING  IN   AMERICA. 

under  way  at  the  Arlington  Experimental  Farm,  near  Washing- 
ton, D.  C.,  at  Pullman,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  state  of  Wash- 
ington, and  elsewhere  tend  to  prove  that  heavy-seeding  propensity 
is  heritable  to  a  marked  degree.  In  consequence  of  this,  a  race 
of  unusual  excellence  could  readily  be  secured  by  propagation  of 
the  progeny  of  individuals  selected  on  this  basis. 

When  alfalfa  is  grown  in  rows  to  permit  of  intertillage,  it  is 
much  easier  to  make  selections  than  in  broad-casted  stands,  chief- 
ly because  individuals  in  rows  have  better  opportunity  for  expres- 
sion of  their  normal  character.  In  addition,  the  comparative  isola- 
tion of  the  plants  gives  readier  access  to  them. 

At  first  thought  it  mignt  appear  that  in  thinning  out  stands  of 
row-cultivated  alfalfa,  only  individuals  of  the  greatest  seed-produc- 
ing capacity  should  be  left.  A  second  thought  quickly  reveals  the 
fallacy  of  this  idea,  as  the  ultimate  purpose  of  all  alfalfa  growing 
is  hay  production.  Selection  based  on  seeding  habits  alone  will 
develop  this  side  of  the  plant  unduly  at  the  expense  of  its  forage- 
producing  capacity.  The  highest  type  of  alfalfa  for  use  in  areas 
where  seed  production  is  the  primary  purpose  in  growing  the  crop 
is  one  that  combines  satisfactory  hay  and  seed  producing  quality 
in  symmetrical  proportions. 

It  is  recommended  that  the  selection  of  desirable  plants  com- 
mence as  soon  as  the  preliminary  seeding  has  developed  plants 
large  enough  to  show  their  value.  The  field  should  be  inspected 
row  by  row,  and  seed  of  ±he  selected  plants  should  be  gathered  in 
advance  of  the  regular  harvest.  The  relatively  small  quantity  of 
seed  secured  in  this  way  should  be  sown  with  great  care  to  make 
it  cover  the  greatest  possible  area  of  ground.  The  plat  of  alfalfa 
thus  secured  will  produce  seed  of  much  greater  value  than  that 
obtained  from  unselected  plants.  If  this  method  is  carried  out, 
materially  increased  crops  of  seed  may  be  secured  without  de- 
tracting from  the  hay  value  of  the  strain.  Indeed,  both  the  hay 
and  the  seed  producing  capacity  may  be  increased  by  the  process. 

If  it  is  impracticable  to  secure  sufficient  seed  from  selected 
plants  for  all  of  the  new  seedings  that  one  desires  to  make,  the 
selected  seed  should  be  planted  separately,  and  that  harvested 
from  this  plat  should  be  used  for  subsequent  seeding.  -  This 
method  will  also  afford  an  opportunity  for  demonstrating  the  rela- 
tive value  of  selected  as  compared  with  unselected  seed. 

Conclusion. — The  results  obtained  by  farmers  on  a  field  scale,  as 
well  as  of  the  experiments  thus  far  conducted,  indicate  that  the 
growing  of  alfalfa  in  cultivated  rows  for  seed  in  the  semi-arid 
regions  offers  every  promise  of  success.  The  method  is  recom- 
mended particularly  for  those  sections  where  on  account  of  the 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  463 

light  rainfall  but  one  crop,  or  at  best  two  crops,  of  alfalfa  bay 
can  be  secured  in  each  season. 

Next  to  the  problem  of  providing  and  maintaining  a  firm, 
moist  seed  bed,  the  controlling  of  the  weeds  offers  the  greatest 
difficulty.  This  is  especially  true  during  the  first  season,  when 
their  rapid  growth  makes  it  difficult  to  control  them  by  cultiva- 
tion owing  to  the  danger  of  covering  the  small  alfalfa  plants. 

It  is  expected  that  the  machinery  now  in  use  in  most  com- 
munities can  be  adapted  to  the  growing  of  seed  in  rows.  While 
the  results  indicate  that  the  row  method  of  culture  will  probably 
become  an  efficient  factor  in  the  development  of  the  semi-arid 
regions,  too  much  must  not  be  expected  of  it.  Those  undertaking 
the  work  will  be  pioneers.  To  them  will  fall  the  task  of  develop- 
ing new  devices  and  special  adaptations  of  the  implements  at 
hand,  upon  which  will  depend  in  large  measure  the  practical  suc- 
cess of  the  method. 

The  alfalfa  plant  requires  but  a  small  supply  of  moisture  when 
seed  setting  is  going  on.  Heavy  seed  crops  are  to  a  large  extent 
dependent  upon  the  prevalence  during  this  time  of  a  certain 
amount  of  dry  weather  knd  heat.  In  many  parts  of  the  semi-arid 
regions  an  unusually  favorable  combination  of  these  conditions  is 
present.  The  power  to  regulate  by  surface  tillage  the  supply  of 
soil  moisture  makes  the  method  of  growing  alfalfa  in  cultivated 
rows  for  seed  of  especial  romise  in  those  parts  of  the  Great 
Plains,  intermountain  area,  and  other  sections  where  the  average 
annual  rainfall  ranges  from  14  to  20  inches. 

Alfalfa  in  Dry  Farming. — P.  K.  Blinn,  of  the  Colo- 
rado agricultural  college,  thus  tersely  advises  those 
attempting  dry  farming: 

If  a  farmer  on  the  dry  plains  has  a  well  that  will  furnish  just 
enough  water  for  fifty  head  of  stock,  it  would  be  absurd  for  him 
to  try  to  keep  sixty  or  seventy  head  on  the  same  supply  of  water; 
and  it  is  equally  ridiculous  for  him  to  attempt  to  crowd  plants  in 
soil  where  the  moisture  is  limited. 

Some  plants  may  develop  with  less  moisture  than  others,  but 
alfalfa  is  not  one  of  these  plants;  on  the  other  hand,  it  is  con- 
ceded by  all  western  farmers  than  an  abundance  of  moisture  is 
the  key  to  success  in  growing  alfalfa  for  hay.  When  it  is  well 
established,  alfalfa  will  endure  long  droughts  and  still  revive 
when  water  is  applied;  to  that  extent  it  is  adapted  to  dry  farming, 
and  its  deep-rooting  tendency  may  enable  the  crop  to  grow  without 
irrigation,  if  the  roots  can  penetrate  to  moist  soil.  There  are 
many  localities  on  the  plains  where  the  run-off  from  heavy  show- 


464  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN  AMERICA. 

ers  could  be  collected  and  diverted  by  ditches  upon  soil  suited  to 
alfalfa.  Often  in  a  draw,  where  moisture  from  the  surrounding 
prairie  is  inclined  to  center,  good  encouragement  for  seeding  to 
alfalfa  is  offered. 

The  number  of  plants  to  the  acre  that  can  be  maintained  in  the 
dry  farming  district  has  not  been  determined;  but  at  Rocky  Ford, 
Col.,  in  1908,  an  alfalfa  nursery  plant,  without  irrigation  for 
eleven  previous  months,  produced  at  the  rate  of  two  and  three- 
fifths  tons  per  acre  the  first  cutting;  and  then  made  a  second  cur- 
ting  equally  as  good,  that  was  left  for  seed.  The  plat  had  been 
seeded  in  1907  to  Turkestan  alfalfa,  and  thinned  to  single  plants 
twenty  inches  apart  each  way.  It  received  one  irrigation  and 
was  thoroughly  cultivated  that  year.  The  growth  in  1908  was 
made  on  the  moisture  that  was  stored  and  conserved  in  the  soil, 
but  such  phenomenal  yields  can  hardly  be  expected  without  irri- 
gation. In  the  favored  spots,  before  mentioned,  alfalfa  can  cer- 
tainly be  grown  if  once  established  and  properly  managed. 

The  growing  of  alfalfa  seed  offers  great  opportunities  to  the 
farmer  on  dry  lands,  because  the  fact  has  been  well  demonstrated 
that  alfalfa  yields  seed  best  when  the  plant  makes  a  slow,  dwarfed 
growth,  when  it  really  lacks  for  moisture,  but  has  enough  to  set 
and  fill  the  seed.  Seed  grown  under  dry  conditions  has  more 
vigor  and  vitality  than  seed  produced  with  an  excess  of  moisture, 
and  it  is  usually  free  from  dodder  and  other  noxious  weeds,  if  the 
field  has  had  any. cultural  care.  There  is  a  demand  for  dry  land 
alfalfa  seed  that  far  exceeds  the  supply. 

In  establishing  alfalfa  for  seed  production,  under  dry  conditions, 
it  is  recommended  to  sow  in  rows  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  apart, 
with  two  to  three  pounds  of  good  seed  per  acre.  A  thin,  uniform 
stand  is  absolutely  necessary,  even  to  thinning,  as  in  beet  culture; 
but  the  stand  can  usually  be  regulated  by  the  amount  of  seed 
sown.  It  has  been  found  that  plants  twenty  inches  apart  will 
support  each  other  and  not  lodge  or  lay  on  the  ground,  as  in 
thicker  or  thinner  stands.  With  a  good  stooling  variety  like  the 
Turkestan,  plants  six  to  twelve  inches  apart  in  the  row  are  thick 
enough.  If  all  the  seed  would  germinate,  one  pound  per  acre 
would  be  ample,  but  it  is  difficult  to  sow  a  small  quantity  uni- 
formly in  the  row,  and  for  seed  production  it  might  pay  to  space 
and  thin  the  plants. 

The  row  system  is  essential,  as  it  permits  intertillage  to  eradi- 
cate weeds,  and  to  conserve  the  moisture,  and  also  allows  deep 
cultivation  to  absorb  winter  storms,  affording  an  opportunity  to 
furrow  out  the  rows  and  to  direct  or  divert  any  surface  water  that 
may  or  may  not  be  needed.  It  is  the  only  system  that  will  allow 
the  tillage  that  is  so  essential  to  all  dry  farming. 


GROWING  ALFALFA  SEED.  465 

The  four-row  beet  cultivator,  with  its  weeding  knives  and  other 
attachments,  is  an  ideal  tool  for  cultivating  the  crop.  A  four-row 
drill  adapted  to  sowing  alfalfa  seed  is  needed  to  complete  the 
equipment,  but  the  ordinary  beet  drill,  with  the  addition  of  an 
alfalfa  or  grass  seeder  attachment,  can  be  modified  to  suit  the 
work.  The  seed  should  be  sown  shallow,  not  over  an  inch  deep, 
and  good  results  have  been  secured  with  the  common  garden  drill 
by  marking  out  the  ground  with  the  rows  gauged  in  sets  of  four, 
to  correspond  to  the  four-row  cultivator. 

Where  there  is  an  opportunity  to  use  irrigation  or  flood  water, 
tne  field  should  be  ditched  in  every  other  row,  and  the  furrows 
"logged  out"  with  a  sled  made  of  short  logs,  8  to  10  inches  in  di- 
ameter, and  from  3  to  4  feet  long,  spaced  to  fit  two  furrows,  so 
that  the  water  may  be  run  through  as  quickly  as  possible,  for  the 
alfalfa  crop  for  seed  will  need  as  little  water  as  can  be  applied. 
A  short  rush  of  water  after  a  sudden  shower  can  be  delivered 
over  considerable  ground  if  the  field  is  properly  ditched. 


BARNS  AND  SHEDS  FOR  STOR- 
ING HAY. 

Alfalfa  hay  east  of  the  Missouri  Eiver  ought  al- 
ways to  be  put  under  cover.  In  very  truth  it  ought 
to  be  put  under  cover  in  any  climate  humid  enough 


-/    \ 


2X6"  NAIL  GIRTS 


16' 


5IDE    ELEVATION   OF 
PART    OF   FRAMC 


V 


\ 


\ 


to  grow  the  crop  .without  irrigation.  When  one 
builds  a  barn  or  shed  for  storing  alfalfa  he  should 
consider  a  few  basal  truths. 

(466) 


BARNS  AND   SHEDS  FOR   STORING   HAY.  467 


Desirable  Conditions. — It  is  essential  that  the  mow 
have  depth.  It  is  costly  to  roof  a  shallow  mow.  The 
mow  should  have  no  cross  ties.  Alfalfa  is  much 


468  ALFALFA   FARMING   IN   AMERICA. 

easier  put  in  with  modern  sling  carriers  if  there  are 
no  cross  ties  to  obstruct  the  working  of  the  carrier. 
The  roof  must  be  strong  if  hay  is  taken  in  in  large 
drafts.  It  must  be  of  economical  construction. 
It  must  be  able  to  endure  stress  of  wind  and  storm. 

The  writer  has  designed  hundreds  of  barns  of 
varying  types  for  situations  scattered  nearly  all  over 
America.  After  many  years  of  experience  he  de- 
cides that  for  simple  storage  of  hay  the  type  shown 
on  pages  466  and  467  is  the  best  extant.  It  is  as 
simple  as  can  be,  it  is  cheap  to  build.  It  may  have 
round  pole  for  posts,  square  timbers  or  be  all  of 
joists  construction.  It  has  not  one  brace  or  cross  tie 
inside  the  hay  mow.  The  outer  braces  are  not  in  the 
way  especially,  as  they  occur  only  at  intervals  of  14' 
or  16'.  They  will  not  decay  if  they  are  covered  on  top 
and  sides  with  a  strip  of  galvanized  steel  roofing, 
bent  to  fit.  The  under  side  is  best  -left  uncovered. 
The  foundation  is  of  concrete  piers  molded  in  place 
and  each  one  having  an  iron  pin  coming  up  several 
inches  into  the  foot  of  the  post. 

A  floor  ought  to  be  provided.  Sometimes  a  scaf- 
folding of  round  poles  is  laid  down,  putting  the  poles 
close  enough  to  make  a  good  air  space  under  the 
hay.  A  concrete  floor  made  water  proof  will  serve 
if  care  is  taken  to  put  down  very  dry  straw  or  hay 
at  the  beginning  so  as  to  make  a  layer  all  over  the 
bottom. 

Shed  for  Baling. — Supposing  hay  to  be  baled  from 
this  barn,  a  shed  or  lean-to  is  provided  on  one  side. 
Each  crop  may  be  baled  as  soon  as  it  has  thorough- 


BARNS  AND  SHEDS  FOR  STORING  HAY.        469 

ly  gone  'through  its  sweat  and  the  'baled  hay  piled  in 
the  shed,  the  bales  on  edge,  as  much  air  space  be- 
tween them  as  possible.  A  good  wooden  floor  should 
raise  the  bales  well  above  ground  moisture. 

Siding. — This  hay  barn  may  be  sided  clear  down 
or  only  part  way.  It  is  best  to  side  clear  down,  since 
driving  rains  will  damage  the  hay  enough  to  make 
siding  profitable.  The  nail  girts  are  2'x6',  spiked  in 
place,  and  the  siding  put  on  vertically.  The  roof  is 
best  perhaps  of  galvanized  steel,  or  else  of  good  shin- 
gles, though  there  are  good  ready-made  roofings  of 
asphaltum  base. 

Frame. — Another  illustration  shows  quite  clearly 
the  side  of  the  frame  with  posts  set  16'  apart.  The 
long  braces  support  the  plate  so  that  it  is  as  though 
posts  were  set  only  8'  apart.  The  box  plate  on  which 
rafters  rest  should  be  strongly  made.  Use  two  pieces 
of  2x12"  stuff  and  the  roof  will  keep  in  perfect  shape. 

Driveicay. — Hay  may  be  taken  up  from  a  trans- 
verse driveway  or  from  the  end.  If  from  the  end  it 
ought  to  face  the  East,  or  preferably  the  Southeast. 
The  construction  of  the  overhang  is  indicated  in  the 
drawing.  Brace  it  strongly.  If  an  overhang  is  pro- 
vided one  can  have  also  a  transverse  driveway  and 
from  it  fill  the  barn  till  all  is  full  except  this  drive- 
way, which  can  then  be  filled  from  outside.  An  over- 
hang of  6'  width,  the  sheeting  and  roof  extending 
out  24"  farther,  will  protect  a  load  of  hay  if  the 
barn  is  turned  away  from  the  direction  of  storms. 


ALFALFA  IN  TEXAS. 

The  overshadowing  importance  of  Texas  in  its  new 
agricultural  development  renders  information  con- 
cerning alfalfa  growing  in  that  vast  commonwealth 
of  unusual  interest.  A  summary  of  the  situation  is 
thus  presented  through  the  kindness  of  Prof.  H.  H. 
Harrington,  Director  of  the  Texas  Experiment  Sta- 
tion at  College  Station : 

The  oldest  alfalfa  fields  in  Texas  are  in  the  Rio  Grande  valley 
below  El  Paso,  around  Ysleta.  Some  fields  the.re  have  been  con- 
tinuously in  alfalfa  for  25  years,  and  with  reseeding  the  ground 
has  been  in  alfalfa  for  40  years. 

The  best  area  in  Texas  adapted  to  alfalfa  growing  would  be 
very  difficult  to  specify  in  explicit  fashion.  There  are  so  many 
areas  being  developed  to  this  plant,  and  the  industry  is  compara- 
tively so  new,  that  I  could  not  say  definitely  as  to  the  superiority 
of  any  particular  section.  I  am  inclined  to  think,  however,  that 
without  irrigation  the  Red  River  valley  in  the  Panhandle  is  the 
most  desirable  locality.  Much  of  the  Panhandle  proper,  espe- 
cially along  the  draws  and  in  the  valleys,  is  admirably  adapted  to 
growing  alfalfa.  The  black  lands  of  North  Texas,  from  Dallas 
north  particularly,  seem  well  suited  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa  on 
land  that  is  not  affected  by  the  cotton  root  rot. 

The  largest  development  of  alfalfa  growing  at  the  present  time 
is  in  the  Pecos  Valley,  in  Ward  County,  at  Barstow,  and  at  Grand 
Falls,  in  Pecos  County,  and  in  the  Toyah  valley,  in  Reeves  County. 

The  question  as  to  what  part  of  the  state  would  be  foremost  in 
seed  production  is  susceptible  of  considerable  conjecture.  How- 
ever, it  will  probably  be  the  Panhandle  from  Chillicothe  north. 

As  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa  in  Mexico  across  from  Del  Rio,  I 
cannot  say.  The  Lower  i,io  Grande  soils,  however,  are  growing 
alfalfa  successfully  at  the  present  time,  but  the  industry  has  not 
been  established  long  enough  to  determine  whether  or  not  it  can 
be  carried  on  for  a  number  of  years  successfully.  They  are  likely 
to  meet  with  some  soils  that  will  kill  out  the  alfalfa  from  cotton 
root  rot,  just  as  the  soil  of  Don  Trevino  failed. 

I  have  no  data  as  to  the  definite  relation  between  the  lime  con- 

(470) 


ALFALFA   IN   TEXAS.  471 

tent  of  soils  and  the  growth  of  alfalfa.  I  am  satisfied,  however, 
that  under  other  favorable  conditions  only  a  very  small  per- 
centage of  lime  is  necessary — say  three  per  cent  of  the  carbonate. 
In  Hays  County  and  in  Comal  the  amount  of  carbonate  of  lime  in 
the  soil  is  very  high,  some  analyses  which  we  have  showing  as 
much  as  25  per  cent.  In  the  Pecos  valley  the  percentage  of  sul- 
phate of  lime,  or  gypsum,  is  very  high,  and  such  soil  is  admirably 
adapted  to  the  growth  of  alfalfa,  but  that  soil,  unfortunately,  con- 
tains a  considerable  quantity  of  alkali,  mainly  the  chloride  of 
soda  or  common  salt,  and  a  little  carbonate  of  soda;  but  after  one 
or  two  years'  use  with  a  sufficiency  of  water  these  soluble  salts 
seem  to  be  washed  out,  and  then  the  soils  remain  as  perhaps  the 
best  alfalfa  soils  in  the  state.  I  understand  that  these  same  con- 
ditions prevail  around  Roswell,  New  Mex. 

I  would  advise  sowing  in  the  fall  as  the  best  method  of  estab- 
lishing alfalfa  fields  in  Texas.  This,  in  the  northern  part  of  the 
state — say  from  the  Texas  &  Pacific  railroad  north — may  be  done 
as  early  as  August,  and  preferably  not  later  than  September; 
while  in  the  southern  part  of  the  state  sowing  may  take  place  as 
late  as  December.  The  thing  to  be  sought  is  to  get  the  alfalfa 
well  started  with  a  good  growth  before  the  freezing  weather  of 
winter.  Of  course,  every  one  now  knows  that  in  what  is  known 
as  the  rain  belt  proper,  the  main  difficulties  with  alfalfa  during 
its  first  year  are  weeds  and  crab  grass,  so  far  as  conditions  in  this 
state  are  concerned.  It  is  therefore  well  if  possible  to  have  one 
year's  clean  cultivation  of  the  land  prior  to  putting  it  in  alfalfa, 
and  I  regard  it  as  essential  that  especially  the  summer  immedi- 
ately preceding  the  seeding  of  the  land  to  alfalfa  in  the  fall  must 
have  been  one  of  clean  cultivation.  The  land  also  for  a  month 
before  the  time  of  seeding  should  have  been  well  plowed,  not  nec- 
essarily deep,  in  the  rain  belt,  but  the  surface  preparation  should 
be  of  the  best.  The  disk  harrow  is  the  best  implement  for  this 
purpose,  and  then  keep  the  surface  well  stirred  with  an  Acme 
harrow  or  with  a  weeder,  in  order  that  when  a  rain  comes,  seed- 
ing may  take  place  soon  thereafter.  When  the  ground  is  caught 
in  just  the  right  condition,  the  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  or  in 
drills,  preferably  the  latter,  although  it  is  a  little  more  trouble. 
A  light  roller  over  the  land  will  then  secure  a  better  stand. 

In  the  spring  if  weeds  and  grass  appear,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
mow  the  alfalfa  when  it  is  five  or  six  inches  high,  merely  to  kill 
the  weeds  and  the  grass.  If  the  first  summer  happens  to  be  a 
dry  one  the  crop,  after  having  yielded  one  to  three  cuttings,  may 
fail  and  reseeding  the  following  fall  be  necessary.  This  will  not 
usually  be  the  case,  but  it  sometimes  happens.  The  farmer 
however  should  not  be.  necessarily  discouraged,  He  may 


472  ALFALFA    FARMING    IN    AMERICA. 

harrow  and  reseed  the  spots  that  are  most  bare,  or  plow  up  the 
entire  field  and  reseed  it.  After  the  first  year  if  the  alfalfa  has 
done  well  it  ought  to  be  disked  with  a  harrow,  preferably  after 
each  cutting;  certainly  twice  a  year,  setting  the  disk  so  as  to  cut 
about  four  inches,  and  lapping  on  the  return  round.  Some  prac- 
tice disking  both  ways,  after  which  a  smoothing  harrow  or  a 
roller  is  passed  over  the  field  to  smooth  it.  An  alfalfa  renovator 
may  be  used  instead  of  the  harrow.  Even  on  irrigated  land  some 
cultivation  is  desired. 

I  do  not  attach  very  much  importance  in  this  state  at  least,  to 
the  inoculation  of  the  soil.  I  have  never  known  a  crop  of  alfalfa 
to  fail  here  from  neglect  of  this  precaution.  Most  of  our  soils 
seem  to  be  either  naturally  inoculated,  or  to  become  so  very  soon 
after  the  growth  of  alfalfa  is  begun. 

The  number  of  cuttings  varies  from  three  to  seven.  I  recently 
saw  a  60-acre  field  cut  the  third  time  that  produced  at  that  cut- 
ting eighty  tons  of  the  prettiest  alfalfa  that  I  ever  looked  at.  This 
was  in  the  Toyah  Valley.  Their  practice  in  haying  is  to  windrow 
the  alfalfa  the  second  day  after  cutting,  and  then  with  buck 
rakes  bale  from  the  windrow  in  the  field,  being  careful  to  throw 
aside  any  swaths  that  seem  a  little  too  green.  I  do  not  mean 
green  as  to  color,  but  as  to  sap.  Such  alfalfa  has  all  the  leaves 
preserved  and  is  as  green  and  as  fresh-looking  in  the  bale  as  it 
is  in  the  field. 

Of  course  this  is  quite  a  dry  climate.  In  the  rain  belt  I  would 
advise  cutting  in  the  morning  after  the  dew  is  off  and  windrow- 
ing  next  morning  after  the  dew  is  off,  and  if  it  is  to  be  stacked, 
it  may  be  put  up  that  afternoon.  If  it  is  to  be  baled,  it  should  be 
given  a  little  more  time  in  the  stack  or  shock,  but  this  is  not  al- 
ways necessary.  One  season's  experience  is  almost  essential  for 
successful  alfalfa  growing,  and  the  intelligent  farmer  will  soon 
learn  to  recognize  and  correct  the  difficulties  of  his  particular 
locality. 


ALFALFA  IN  HAWAII. 

Interesting  information  as  to  alfalfa  on  one  of 
our  island  possessions  in  the  western  seas  comes  thus 
from  E.  V.  Wileox,  special  agent  in  charge  of  the 
Hawaiian  Experiment  Station  of  the  Department  of 
Agriculture  at  Honolulu: 

This  station  has  not  published  any  bulletins  on  the  cultivation 
of  alfalfa,  but  the  matter  has  received  considerable  of  our  atten- 
tion, and  the  crop  is  successfully  grown  in  a  number  of  localities. 
It  may  be  interesting  to  learn  that  during  last  season  a  fairly 
good  stand  of  alfalfa  was  obtained  on  the  Parker  Ranch,  at  an 
altitude  of  4,700  feet,  with  a  total  annual  rainfall  of  only  two 
inches.  The  crop  stood  about  30  inches  high  when  I  last  saw  it 
in  December. 

Where  alfalfa  stubble  is  promptly  irrigated  after  each  cutting, 
twelve  crops  per  year  are  obtained,  and  in  exceptional  cases  thir- 
teen. On  a  large  dairy  farm  near  Honolulu,  alfalfa  reaches  the 
blooming  stage  and  is  cut  every  thirty  days  the  year  round.  A 
crop  has  been  made  in  26  days.  Thus  far  little  attention  has 
been  given  to  the  making  of  alfalfa  hay,  since  alfalfa  may  be 
obtained  green  the  year  round. 

The  greatest  difficulty  experienced  in  our  islands  in  growing 
alfalfa  is  that  furnished  by  cutworms.  These  pests  eat  off  the 
young  plants  when  about  two  or  three  inches  high.  It  has  been 
found  best  to  plant  new  land  to  sorghum  for  a  year  or  two,  after 
which  the  cutworm  attacks  are  not  serious  enough  to  interfere 
with  the  growth  of  alfalfa. 

In  most  localities  in  Hawaii  alfalfa  does  not  reach  the  height 
which  it  attains  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region  or  in  the  eastern 
states,  but  the  stems  are  perhaps  less  woody,  due  to  their  rapid 
growth,  and  are  abundantly  furnished  with  leaves  almost  to  the 
ground.  The  quality  of  the  forage  is  therefore  very  good.  Alfalfa 
is  raised  here  chiefly  for  soiling  dairy  cows,  but  is  also  fed  to 
pigs,  horses  and  other  stock.  I  have  never  known  of  a  case  of 
bloating  caused  by  the  feeding  on  green  alfalfa  or  from  pastur- 
ing on  the  young  crop.  It  is  not  quite  certain  why  we  are  free 
from  this  trouble. 

The  area  devoted  to  alfalfa  is  being  continually  increased.  On 
the  Parker  Ranch  one  ton  of  seed  was  planted  this  spring  and 
various  other  ranches  are  increasing  their  areas  as  fast  as  they 
are  able  to  overcome  the  difficulties  of  getting  the  crop  started. 

(473) 


ALFALFA  IN  ALGERIA. 

In  France  and  Algeria,  according  to  Bulletin  33  of 
Gouvernement  General  De  L 'Algeria,  deep  plowing 
for  alfalfa  is  urged.  The  soil  should  be  stirred  to  a 
depth  of  at  least  20  inches.  There  alfalfa  is  some- 
times drilled  in  rows  16"  apart.  The  rate  of  seeding 
advised  for  Algeria  is  about  16  Ibs.  per  acre  when 
sown  broadcast  or  12  Ibs.  when  sown  in  drills.  Men- 
tion is  made  of  a  field  where  the  yields  of  "fourraige 
frais"  or  green  fodder,  in  three  or  four  cuttings  in 
successive  years  made  8,  16,  22  and  finally  32  tons 
per  acre.  In  that  land  they  have  learned  the  need 
of  lime  and  recommend  large  amounts,  also  of  phos- 
phorus and  advise  the  use  of  1,000  Ibs.  per  hectare 
or  about  400  Ibs.  per  acre  of  superphosphate. 

Mention  is  made  also  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a 
native  race  of  alfalfa  in  the  oases  of  the  Sahara 
desert  and  that  alfalfa  from  southwestern  America 
thrives  in  Algeria  better  than  seed  from  France. 

This  bulletin  states  the  peculiar  fact  that  alfalfa 
thrives  in  Algeria  in  small  fields,  well  enriched,  well 
plowed,  well  cared  for,  but  that  it  is  not  usually 
very  successful  in  large  fields. 


VITALITY  OF  SEED. 


The  United  States  Experiment  Station  Record, 
Vol.  VI,  No.  5,  gives  in  a  tabular  form  the  result  of 
an  eleven  years '  test  of  the  duration  of  the  vitality 
of  some  agricultural  seeds  made  by  S.  Samck,  from 
which  the  following  is  taken.  Well  matured  seed 
was  selected,  a  portion  of  which  was  examined  each 
year  from  1883  to  1894.  The  unused  portions  were 
kept  in  paper  bags  in  a  dry  airy  room  and  seeds 
taken  from  them  each  succeeding  year  for  the  test. 


KINDS  OF  SEED. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  VITALITY. 

1 

year. 

2 

yrs. 

3 

yrs. 

4 

yrs. 

5 

yrs. 

6 

yrs. 

7 
yrs. 

8 
yrs. 

9 
yr3. 

10 
yrs. 

11 
yrs. 

54 
2 
3 

22 
0 

Alfalfa  
Reel  Clover  

94 

90 
73 
74 
95 
46 

91 
90 
64 

72 
93 

47 

87 
88 
51 
63 
90 
41 

75 

84 
37 
5? 
^8 
44 

72 
74 
15 
50 
86 
38 

71 
68 
7 
50 
79 
29 

68 
44 
6 
35 
66 
21 

66 
16 
5 
31 
39 
12 

63 
10 
3 

26 
15 

8 

59 
3 
3 
23 
1 
5 

Alsike  
White  Clover 

Timothy  

Orchard  grass.  .  .   . 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  year  of  the  experi- 
ment, out  of  100  seeds  of  alfalfa  planted,  94  germi- 
nated; of  the  same  number  of  red  clover,  90  germi- 
nated ;  of  alsike,  73 ;  of  white  clover,  74 ;  of  timothy, 
95 ;  of  orchard  grass,  46 ;  while  in  the  eleventh  year 
but  54  out  of  the  100  seeds  of  alfalfa  grew,  2  of  red 
clover,  3  of  alsike,  22  of  white  clover,  and  none  of 
either  timothy  or  orchard  grass.  According  to  these 
figures,  age  does  not  affect  the  vitality  of  alfalfa 
seed  so  much  as  it  does  the  other  seeds  used  in  the 
experiment.  No  observations,  however,  were  made 
by  the  experimenter  regarding  the  strength  of  the 
plants  from  the  old  seed  as  compared  with  those 
from  the  new  seed, 

(475) 


INDEX. 


About  bacteria,  226. 

Abundant  nitrogen   in   air,   225. 

Action   on   kidneys,    375. 

Adaptability    of    seed,    430. 

Add   limestone,    113. 

Adding  to  fertility,  186. 

Adulterations,    441. 

Adulteration,    442. 

Advantages  of  grazing  alfalfa, 
340. 

Advantages  of  soiling,  323. 

Air    circulation,    356. 

Alfalmo,   418 

Alsike   clover  and  alfalfa,   222. 

Amount  of  caustic  lime,   118. 

Amount  of  grain,   407. 

Amount   of  pasturage,    408. 

Amount   of   water   used,    250. 

Ants,   427. 

Appearance  reveals  inoculation, 
233. 

Arabian  alfalfa,  82. 

Areas  adapted  for  seed,  451. 

As  a  bee  pasture,  345. 

Availability   of   lime,    112. 

Alfalfa  (Medicago  Sativa),  78. 

Alfalfa  after  crimson  clover, 
214. 

Alfalfa   after   oats,    213. 

Alfalfa  after  spring  barley,  212. 

Alfalfa  dangerous  after  frost, 
343. 

Alfalfa  following  crimson  clo- 
ver, 164. 

Alfalfa  for  brood   mares,   377. 

Alfalfa   for    cattle    grazing,    346. 

Alfalfa   for   poultry,    335. 

Alfalfa  for  soiling  horses,   331. 

Alfalfa   for    soiling   sheep,    332.    - 

Alfalfa   for   soiling   swine,    334. 

Alfalfa  for  young  horses,  376. 

Alfalfa  growing  and  irrigation 
in  Mexico,  290. 

Alfalfa   harrow,    the,    256. 

Alfalfa   hay,    411. 

Alfalfa  hay  for  brood  sows,  412. 

Alfalfa  in  arid  agriculture,   279. 

Alfalfa   in   dry   farming,    463. 

Alfalfa  in  rotations,  238. 

Alfalfa  loves   desert   soils,   279. 

Alfalfa  loves  rich   soils,    153. 

Alfalfa  meal  for  dairy  cows,  390. 

Alfalfa  not  a  balanced  food,  406. 

Alfalfa  not  a  grass,   84. 

Alfalfa    pastures    for    hogs,    404. 

Alfalfa  root  rot,   266. 

Alfalfa  silage  .for  cows,  391, 


Alfalfa  with   red   clover  for  in- 
oculation, 220. 

Alfalfa   and   alsike   clover,    269. 
Alfalfa  and  brome  grass,   270. 
Alfalfa     and      Kentucky      blue- 
grass,  273. 
Alfalfa  and  orchard  grass,  275. 

Bacteria,   85. 

Basic   slag,   176. 

Basic  slag  a  source  of  lime,  134. 

Bloom  not  a  test,  293. 

Bread   from  alfalfa  meal,   360. 

Breaking   sod   in   Colorado,    421. 

Brome  grass  as  a  pasture  grass, 

2  72 

Brown   hay,   315. 
Building  soils  to  stay  built,  146. 
Bur    clover    (medicago    denticu- 

lata),  80. 

Carbonate    of    lime    is    neutral, 

114. 

Care  of  machinery,  307. 
Care  in  pasturing,   336. 
Cattle-carrying  capacity,  351. 
Causes  of  failure,  409. 
Chemistry  of  lime,  the,   140. 
Chilean  lucern,  443. 
Choice  of  seed,  455. 
Coating  seed  with  earth,   231. 
Cocking  the  hay,   311. 
Cold  water  or  ice,   342. 
Color  of  dead   seed,   443. 
Comparative   value    of   the    hay, 

399. 
Composition      of      the      different 

parts,   368. 

Conclusions,    428,    462. 
Conditions     of     silage     making, 

354. 

Conditions     favorable     to     bac- 
teria, 232. 

Cost    of    high-grade    and     low- 
grade  seeds,  444. 
Cotton  root  rot,  the,   267. 
Cowpeas,    159. 
Crab    grass   and    lime,    117. 
Crimson     clover     (trifolium     in- 

carnatum),   161. 
Crimson    clover    in     conclusion, 

165. 
Crimson  clover  for  pasture  and 

hay,    163. 

Crop  failures,  242. 
Curing  alfalfa  bloat,  341. 
Curing  for  the  mow,   300. 
Curing  green  alfalfa,  317. 


<477) 


478 


INDEX. 


Cutting  for  soiling1  weakens,  89. 
Cutting  promotes  thrift,  91. 

Danger  from  bloat,  338. 
Danger   from   treading,    92. 
Deep  tiling  machine,  a,  256. 
Deficiency   in   soil,    104. 
Degree   of  dryness,   314. 
Depth  to  apply  lime,  120. 
Desirable    conditions,    467. 
Developing  draft  horses,  379. 
Developing  valuable  strains  for 

seed    production,    461. 
Digestibility  of  alfalfa,  366. 
Disk  harrow  and  drag,  196. 
Disk   with   care,    255. 
Distributing   lime,    128. 
Do  not  dry  hay  too  much,  320. 
Do  not  overstock,  404. 
Double    system   best,    325. 
Drainage,  102. 
Drilling   in   the   seed,    220. 
Driveway,   469. 
Dry-land  alfalfa,   82. 

Early  cutting  hurtful,   325. 

Early   start   desirable,    421. 

Easy   of   transportation,    418. 

Effect  of  bees  and  other  in- 
sects, 432. 

Effects  of  lime,   122. 

English    bluegrass    (Festuca 
elactor),   276. 

Eradicating  fox-tail   grass,   158. 

Essentials   in   culutre,    95. 

Essential   to  profit,    392. 

Evidence   of  lime,   113. 

Ewes  get  too  fat,  395. 

Example  of  farm  practice,  an, 
154. 

Example   of  spring  sowing,   196. 

Experiences   of   farmers,   412. 

Experiments   in   Kansas,    382. 

Examine  samples,  442. 

Fall    seeding  after  wheat,   209. 

Fall  seeding  of  alfalfa,   204. 

Farm  machines  for  crushing, 
131. 

Fattening  sale  horses,  377. 

Feeding  methods,   411. 

Feeding  operations  in  the  west, 
399. 

Feeding  practices  and  actual  re- 
sults, 410. 

Feeding  value  of  hay,  396. 

Fertility  of  irrigated  lands,  278. 

Fertility  and  abandoned  farms, 
132. 

Fertilization,   97. 

Fertilizer  distributer,   186. 

Findings  of  experiment  stations, 
388. 

Fine   alfalfa   pork,    403. 

Finishing  cattle  on  alfalfa,  352. 


First   cutting,   the,   294. 
First   growth,    the,   88 
First  irrigation,  the,  285. 
Flooding  system,  the,  283. 
Food  character  of  alfalfa,   410 
Forms  and   kinds  of  lime,   115. 
Frame,   469. 
Free  tests,    444. 
Further  treatment,   199. 

Grain   needed,   407. 
Grapple  forks,  305. 
Grasshoppers,    426. 
Grassing   the   ditch   banks,    289. 
Grazing  pigs   on  alfalfa,   344. 
Grazing   sheep    on    alfalfa,    393. 
Grazing    spring     lambs     on    al- 
falfa,   343. 
Green   alfalfa    in   dairy   ration?. 

o  o  o 

Giving  the  run  of  the  field,  415. 
Good  seed  crop,  a,  435. 
Growing    humus-making    crops. 
159. 

Hardiness  of  the  plant,  92. 

Hardy  alfalfa,  82. 

Harvesting  the   seed   crop,    459 

Hay  dealers'   classifications,  357. 

Hay   loader,    the,    303. 

Hay  sleds,  304. 

Hog  a  grazing  animal,  the,  402. 

Home  testing,   444. 

How  long  should  alfalfa  stand, 

239. 

How  many  cows,   247. 
How  much  phosphorus,   187. 
How  often  to  irrigate,   286. 
How  to   get  bacteria,    229. 
How   to   plow   deep,   192. 
How  well  will  this  pay,  1SS. 

Ice  will  kill,   93. 

Importance  of  good  seed,   441. 

Importation     of     yellow     trefoil 
seed,    442. 

Increasing      water-holding     ca- 
pacity, 251. 

Infecting  a  field,  163. 

Inoculated  soil  a  fertilizer  labo- 
ratory, 234. 

Inoculation,    199. 

Inoculation  an  aid,   207. 

Inoculation  in  advance,  2.11,  232. 

Inoculation    with    soil,    230. 

Insects  and  the  setting  of  seed, 
449. 

In   summary,   228. 

In   Wyoming,   173. 

Irrigation     by     contour     levees, 
280. 

Irrigation   by   the    furrow 
method,  282. 

Jack's    use    pf    crimson    clover, 
214, 


INDEX. 


479 


Kansas  experiments,  364. 

Kansas  view,  a,   431. 

Keep    off    the    fields    in    winter, 

296. 

Keep  hay  from  the  air,  314. 
Keep  sheep  from  small  pastures, 

333. 

Labor  cost,   the,   248. 

Lamb  feeding-  at  Woodland,  397. 

Late  cutting-  damaging,  294. 

Late  mowing-  harmful,  91. 

Length  of  pasture   season,   409. 

Less  grain  needed,  375. 

Life  of  Arg-entine  alfalfa,  350. 

Life   of  a  field,   94. 

Lifting  to  stack  or  mow,  304. 

Lime  in  England,  124. 

Lime  in  soils,  130. 

Lime  the  basis,  111. 

Limestone  harmless,  127. 

Little  grain  needed,  a,  387. 

Loading-  on  low  wagons,  312. 

Location  of  fields,  452. 

Loss  by  weathering-,  369. 

Maintaining    fertility,    401. 
Maintains  vigor,   388. 
Maintenance  of  fertility,  110. 
Making    green     or    brown    hay, 

300. 

Making  horse  hay,  377. 
Management  in  the  mow,  316. 
Manure   brings   inoculation,   151. 
Meal  and  cut  hay,  416. 
Meal  and  bran,   417. 
Meeting   competition,    384. 
Melilotus   or   sweet  clover,    166. 
Melilotus   in   Kentucky,    170. 
Methods   of  harvesting,   437. 
Method  of  seeding  in  rows,  455. 
Method  of  soiling,   333. 
Methods  of  using  manure,  157. 
Method  of  using  soil,   230. 
Methods  in  use,  399. 
Mineral   phosphates,   181. 
Mixing  grasses  with  alfalfa,  343. 
Moisture     the     limiting     factor, 

249. 
Money-making  crop,  a,   431. 

Natural   phosphates,   181. 

Natural   seeding  of  alfalfa,   105. 

Need  of  protein,   359. 

New  work,   126. 

Next  cutting,  the,  90. 

Nodules  on  the  roots,   165. 

No  fear  of  pest,  169. 

No  heaves  nor  colic,  374. 

No  universal  rule,  295. 

Not  hard  to  cure.  309. 

Nurse  crops  in  irrigated  regions, 

£  06. 

Open  center  hay  barn,   the,   308. 
Opening   the   cocks,   313. 
Other  factors,   432. 


Other  forms  of  lime,  118. 
Other  functions  of  lime,  108. 
Other   nurse   crops,    201. 
Other     sources     of    phosphorus. 

180. 
Over-feeding  with  hay,  378. 

Pasture   for   horses,   345. 
Pasturing  and  mowing,  337. 
Penetration     of     roots     in     irri- 
gated   soils,    289. 
Personal    experience,    373. 
Peruvian    alfalfa,    83. 
Phosphates    on   alfalfa,    185. 
Phosphorus    needed,    148. 
Plowing  for  spring  sowing,  195. 
Pork     industry    prominent,    the, 

413. 
Possibilities   of  seed  production 

in   cultivated   rows,    460. 
Poverty   of  soil   a   factor,   253. 
Preparation  for  crop,  210. 
Preparation  of  the  seedbed,  452. 
Preparing  the  land  for  flooding. 

283. 
Prevention    of    the    drifting    of 

soil,    454. 

Prevention  of  grass,  best,  255. 
Principles     of    seed     production, 

447. 

Profit   from   the   cows,   247. 
Profits  in  actual  practice,  246. 
Protein  the  costly  food  element, 

358. 

Quantity  of  lime,   128. 

Rate   of  seed   per  acre,   216. 
Rate    of   seeding   and   thickness 

of  stand,    456. 
Raw  bone  meal,   181. 
Raw    phosphatic     rock     for    al- 
falfa, 183. 

Raking   the    hay,    310. 
Red  clover  and  alfalfa,  268. 
Red  clover  with  alfalfa,  221. 
Relative     value     of     phosphate 

fertilizers,  182. 
Repeating  the  mowing,  326. 
Resisting  temperature  extremes, 

87. 

Results   at   Woodland,   384. 
Right    crop    to    leave    for    seed, 

the,  459. 

Right  way,   the,   419. 
Roots,  85. 
Rotation    for    a    300-acre     farm 

240. 
Rotation    in    the    dairy    region, 

246. 

Safety  of  alfalfa  pasture,  379. 

Salting  hay,  320. 

Sand   lucerne,    79. 

Saving   of   labor  cost   in   alfalfa 

growing,    243. 
Searching  for  inoculation,   233. 


480 


INDEX. 


Second   cutting,   the,   295. 

Securing  nitrogen,   224. 

Seed-growing  in  the  semi-arid 
west,  445. 

Seeding,    207. 

Seeding  after  early  potatoes, 206. 

Seeding    in    Argentina,    350. 

Seeding  in  check  rows  to  permit 
cross-cultivation,  457. 

Seeding  with   drill,   197. 

Selection   of   soil,   452. 

Setting  the  plow,   420. 

Shed   for  baling,   468. 

Sheep  husbandry  in  the  corn- 
belt,  334. 

Shorter  rotation,  a,   243. 

Side  delivery  rake,  the,  302. 

Siding,   469. 

Silage   in   rainy   regions,   355. 

Slings,    306. 

Small   waste  in  feeding,   400. 

Soil,   the,   431. 

Soil   building  with  alfalfa,   234. 

Soil    a   living   thing,    104. 

Soiling   for  dairy  cows,   326. 

Soiling  on  pasture,   326. 

Soils    devoid    of    humus,    154. 

Some   troublesome    weeds,    258. 

Sour  soil,0,  136. 

Sowing  alfalfa  on  irrigable 
land,  284. 

Sowing  the   seed,   219. 

Soy  bean,  the,  160. 

Spreading  with   manure,   297. 

Spontaneous  combustion  in  hay, 
321. 

Spring  plowing  and  summer 
sowing,  205. 

Spring   tooth   harrow,   the,    256. 

Stable  manure,  best  source,  150. 

Stacking  out   of   doors,    317. 

Stacking  and   thrashing,   438. 

Starting  alfalfa  by  irrigation, 
280. 

Steamed  bone  meal,  181. 

Steam  cured  silage,  355. 

Stimulating   flow    of   milk,    386. 

Stops   waste   of  nitrogen,   109. 

Storing  and  marketing  the  seed, 
440. 

Subsequent   cuttings,    201. 

Subsequent    treatment,    208. 

Substitute    for    bran,    359. 

Subsoiling,    194. 

Suggested  rotations,  240. 

Summary,   131,   141,   208,   444. 

Superphosphates  or  manufac- 
tured phosphates,  181. 

Sweating' of -hay  mows,  the,  321. 

Sweep   rakes,    303. 

Tapping   with    trocar,    341. 
Testing  with  potash,   189. 
Tests  of  soiling,   324. 
Tests   in   other  states,   383. 


Thick   fall  seeding  wrong,  219. 
Tile   important,   the,    421. 
Tiling,    103. 
Time  of   seeding,   457. 
Time   to   apply,    119. 
Time  to  cut,   88,  200,   293. 
Timothy   in  alfalfa,   268. 
Treatment  of  the  stand  the  first 

season,  457. 
Treatment    of    the    stand    after 

the  first   season,   458. 
Trials   in  Colorado,    380. 
Turkestan  alfalfa,   81. 
Turn  on   full,   339. 
Turning    under    green    cowpeas, 

159. 
Two  classes  of  plants,  225. 

Unloading   hay,    306. 
Use  of  caustic  lime,   116. 
Use  of  hay  caps,   319. 
Use  of  sweet  clover,  168. 
Using   crimson   clover,    162. 
Using  floats  with  manure,   183. 

Value   of  alfalfa  pasture,   407. 
Value  of  barley  nurse  crops,  201. 
Value  to  dairymen,  387. 
Value   of   liming,    121. 
Varying   practice,    394. 
Views   of  the   Nebraska   station, 

412. 

Visiting  a  stone   quarry,   144. 
Vital  relation  of  bacteria,   224. 

Wait   for  warm   weather,    405. 

Weather,    the,    432. 

Westgate's    bulletin,    370. 

Weed    seeds,    443. 

Weeds  that  kill  alfalfa,   260. 

What  is  alfalfa  land  worth,  245. 

When  to  harvest  for  seed,  436. 

When  to  irrigate,  287. 

When  ready   to   cut,   299. 

Where    bacteria    thrive,    86. 

Where  the  lime  soils  lie,  138. 

Where  are  nurse  crops  permis- 
sible, 203. 

Where   seed  is  grown,  99. 

Which    crop   to    save,    433. 

Why  deep  plowing  suits  alfalfa, 
191. 

Why   make    barley   hay,    200. 

Winter-killing   of   alfalfa,    297. 

Winter  grain  in  alfalfa  fields, 
273. 

Wood    ashes,    189. 

Work   of   bacteria,   the,   227. 

Work  for  rotation,  244. 

Work   after   seeding,    199. 

Yellow   lucerne,   79. 

Yellow   trefoil    (or  hop   clover), 

80,  442. 
Yields  under  irrigation,  251. 


OF  THE 

IIMIVFRSITY 


